Concept explainers
Interpretation:
It should be explained that how signal amplification occurs and what it means for transmission of the signal to the sites of cellular activity.
Concept Introduction:
Hormones are chemical substances synthesized in small amounts by endocrine tissues and carried by blood stream to another tissue, where it acts as a messenger to regulate the function of the target tissue or organ.
cAMP is a cyclic
Secondary messengers are short lived intracellular signaling molecules. Elevated concentration of these type of messengers leads to rapid alteration in the activity of one or more cellular enzymes.
G-protein is a family of membrane proteins anchored to the membrane. They are named as G-proteins because of their interaction with guanine nucleotides. G –proteins functions as molecular switches; when it is bind with GTP they are “ON” and when with GDP they are “OFF”.
Phosphodiesterase is an enzyme that breaks a phosphodiester bond. This enzyme plays a key role in regulating intracellular levels of the second messenger cAMP and hence cell function.
In biology, signal amplification refers to the activation of increasing numbers of molecules downstream from the receptors.
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Fundamentals of General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry (8th Edition)
- Draw a simple sketch illustrating signal amplification.arrow_forwardWhat type of signal transduction is involved in signaling from hormones such as estrogen and testosterone? Explain the signal transduction pathway that occurs. 1. Is there a short term description for signal transduction, instead wrting multiple words to descripte the type of signal transduction? Can I just identify it as active signal transduction and inactive signal transduction. Based on my understanding, active singal transduction is for the fast react transdcution, while inactive signal transduction meanly refers the hormonal affacts on the system. 2. For Ion channels, specific enzymes are both involed activated and inactivated signal transduction?arrow_forwardPathways involving G proteins provide an opportunityfor an increase in signal strength in the course of signaltransduction, a change referred to as amplification.How might this be beneficial in olfaction?arrow_forward
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- After establishing the importance of cGMP in the signaling pathway of the photoreceptor cells, the researchers wish to identify the exact target of cGMP. The researchers suspect that cGMP binds to an ion channel, causing the observed change in the membrane potential between the dark and the light conditions but they are not sure which one. The researchers determine the movement of three different ions (sodium, chloride and potassium) as a function of their respective electrochemical gradient across the plasma membrane: ● Sodium tends to enter the cell Chloride tends to enter the cell Potassium tends to leave the cell The researchers therefore propose three simple hypotheses for the effect of cGMP on the membrane potential of the rod photoreceptor cell: ● Hypothesis A: CGMP binds to a sodium-channel, that opens and lets sodium ions diffuse inside the cell. Hypothesis B: cGMP binds to a chloride-channel, that opens and lets loride ions diffuse inside the cell. Hypothesis C: cGMP binds to…arrow_forwardExplain signal amplification and understand its importance in GPCR signal transductionarrow_forwardTrace the sequence of events in signal transduction for each of the following second messengers: cyclic AMP, inositol trisphosphate (IP3 ), diacylglycerol (DAG), and calcium ions.arrow_forward
- Name three features common to the activation of cytokine receptors and receptor tyrosine kinases. Name one difference with respect to the enzyme activity of these receptors.arrow_forwardwhen kidney cells secrete low levels of oxygen in the blood they secrete erythropoietin. in this particular signaling pathway (response to low oxygen) the secretion of erythropoietin represents which step of the signal transdution process?arrow_forwardWhy do different cells respond to the same stimulus in different ways? State three potential outcomes of signal transduction events.arrow_forward
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