Intro to CP Chapter 5 1x

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Democracy and dictatorship CGG chapter 5 Holger L. Kern Department of Political Science Fall 2023
states, regimes, and governments • A state is an entity that uses coercion and the threat of force to rule in a given territory. • A government is the set of people who run the state or act on behalf of the state at a particular point in time. • A regime is the set of rules, norms, and institutions that determine how the government is formed, how it is organized, and how major decisions are made. 2 / 32
states, regimes, and governments 3 / 32
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democracy in historical perspective • We live in a world that largely agrees on the importance and desirability of democracy. But it has not always been that way. • Until the middle of the nineteenth century, democracy was associated with a seemingly ancient, obsolete political system that was thought to be dangerous and unstable. 4 / 32
democracy in historical perspective • Discussion of the relative merits of different forms of government goes back at least as far as Aristotle (384–322 BC) and Plato (424/423–348/347 BC). • Demokratia normally gets translated as “rule by the people” but does not specify who the people are. • Demos actually referred to the “common people.” I These were people with little or no economic independence, no education, and no knowledge of politics. I Ancient thinkers expected them to pursue their own narrow interests at the expense of the common good. 5 / 32
democracy in historical perspective • Plato saw democracy as government by the poor and uneducated against the rich and educated. • He believed that political decision-making should be based on expertise and that allowing all people to rule in a democracy would lead to mob rule and class warfare. • Aristotle disagreed with Plato to the extent that he believed that there were some conditions under which the will of the many could be equal or wiser than the will of the few. • But this is not to say that he thought highly of democracy! 6 / 32
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democracy in historical perspective Good form Bad form Number of rulers “For the Good of All” “For the Good of the Rulers” One Monarchy Tyranny Few Aristocracy Oligarchy Many Politeia Democracy Aristotle’s Classification of Regimes T ABLE 5.1 • Aristotle saw democracy as class rule. • Moreover, it was class rule by the worst class! • Democracy was the most dangerous of the corrupt forms of government. 7 / 32
democracy in historical perspective • Not only was democracy seen as dangerous, it was not even associated with popular elections. • In the eighteenth century, democracy was seen as a form of government from the ancient world “in which offices are distributed by lot” (i.e., officeholders are chosen randomly). • Monarchy was consistently preferred to democracy by thinkers such as Bodin, Hobbes, Locke, Montesquieu, Kant, and Hegel. 8 / 32
democracy in historical perspective • Democracy was seen as obsolete since I It meant direct legislation by the people, not by representatives of the people. I Members of the executive were chosen randomly. I It might have worked in ancient Athens but could not possibly work in the modern world. 9 / 32
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democracy in historical perspective • The term democracy really entered West European political rhetoric only at the end of the eighteenth century. I People had talked about representative government and popular sovereignty for some time, but not about democracy. I The term democracy became more common at the same time that “aristocracy” and “aristocrat” came into common usage. • “Democracy” and “aristocracy” came to designate the main lines of contention in the Age of (the French, American) Revolution. • The classical three-way distinction between the one, the few, and the many gradually became replaced by the two-way distinction between democracy (many) and autocracy (one or a few). 10 / 32
dictatorship in historical perspective • Only during WWI did it become common to refer to all non-democracies as “dictatorships.” I This negative connotation of “dictatorship” is contrary to its historical usage. I Traditionally, “tyranny,” “despotism,” and “autocracy” were negative terms. I In the ancient world, dictatorship in contrast had a positive connotation. 11 / 32
dictatorship in historical perspective • It is clear that our understanding of the terms democracy and dictatorship has changed dramatically over time. • But for social scientific purposes, we are more interested in how we know a democracy (or a dictatorship) when we see one. 12 / 32
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democracy or constitutional republic? Link to The Atlantic 13 / 32
Dahl’s view of democracy • How do we translate the abstract concept of democracy into a practical set of criteria for classifying democracies and non-democracies? • Two views of democracy: I Substantive view: Classify political regimes in terms of the policy outcomes they produce (e.g., Aristotle). I Procedural or minimalist view : Classify political regimes in terms of their institutions or procedures. 14 / 32
Dahl’s view of democracy • Robert A. Dahl (1915–2014) argued that we should use a procedural or minimalist view of democracy. 15 / 32
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Dahl’s view of democracy • Dahl did not believe that any country was ever fully democratic. Thus, he spoke of “polyarchies” instead, reserving the term democracy for the ideal type. • Regimes are classified along two dimensions: I Inclusion — who gets to participate in the democratic process? I Contestation — the extent to which citizens are free to organize themselves into competing blocs to fight for policies and outcomes they prefer. • Dahl’s minimalist approach has influenced many measures of democracy. 16 / 32
Dahl’s view of democracy Inclusion Contestation Polyarchies (Ideal Type) Soviet Union US today Liechtenstein pre-1984 Switzerland pre-1971 France pre-1945 Apartheid South Africa US pre-1830 China Dahl’s Two Dimensions of Democracy: Contestation and Inclusion F IGURE 5.1 17 / 32
Democracy in America 18 / 32
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measuring democracy • How do political scientists operationalize the concept of democracy? • There are four widely used measures of democracy; we (and the textbook) focus on the first three: I Democracy-Dictatorship (DD) I Polity IV I Freedom House I Varieties of Democracy (V-Dem) 19 / 32
democracy-dictatorship • Democracy is a regime “in which governmental offices are filled as a consequence of contested elections.” • A country is a democracy if all of the following conditions hold: I The chief executive is elected. I The legislature is elected. I There is more than one party competing in the elections. I An alternation in power under identical electoral rules has taken place. • If these conditions do not hold the country is a dictatorship. A country is either a dictatorship or a democracy. 20 / 32
democracy-dictatorship • Why do we need an alternation in power under identical electoral rules? • It is difficult to distinguish between regimes in which (a) incumbents are always in power because they are popular (but would give up power if they lost an election) and (b) incumbents only hold elections because they know they will not lose (and would not hold elections otherwise). • These two cases are observationally equivalent. Examples include Botswana, Japan, Malaysia, and Mexico at various points in time. 21 / 32
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democracy-dictatorship • DD builds on Dahl in two ways: I Procedural or minimalist view of democracy. I Focuses on Dahl’s notion of contestation (and ignores inclusion because there is little variation in the level of inclusion after 1948). • The main difference is that DD treats regime type as a dichotomy (democracy or dictatorship) rather than as a continuum (more or less democratic). 22 / 32
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democracy-dictatorship More Dictatorial More Democratic Dahl’s Continuous Conceptualization of Regime Type F IGURE 5.2 B More Dictatorial Less Dictatorial Dictatorships Less Democratic More Democratic Democracies DD’s Dichotomous Conceptualization of Regime Type F IGURE 5.2 A 23 / 32
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Polity IV • Polity IV provides an annual evaluation of democracy and autocracy from 1800 to the present: I Democracy score 0–10. I Autocracy score 0–10. • From these two scores Polity IV provides a Polity score : Democracy score minus Autocracy score, ranging from - 10 to 10. • Countries with Polity scores of 6 to 10 are typically classified as democracies. Countries with Polity scores of - 10 to - 6 are typically classified as dictatorships. All others are classified as “anocracies“ or “mixed regimes.” 24 / 32
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Polity IV • A country’s Polity score is based on five dimensions: I Competitiveness of executive recruitment I Openness of executive recruitment I Constraints on the executive I Regulation of political participation I Competitiveness of political participation • These dimensions are designed to capture Dahl’s notions of contestation and inclusion. • The “constraints on the executive” dimension adds the requirement that democratic government must be limited government. • Each dimension is worth a different number of points. When coming up with a Democracy or Autocracy score, each dimension is weighted differently. 25 / 32
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Polity IV Contribution to Democracy Score Contribution to Autocracy Score Contribution to Polity Score Competitive 3 0 3 Transitional 2 0 2 Factional 1 0 1 Suppressed 0 1 –1 Repressed 0 2 –2 Competitiveness of Political Participation T ABLE 5.2 26 / 32
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Freedom House • FH is not explicitly a measure of democracy. It is an annual evaluation of the state of “global freedom” from 1972 to the present. • A country’s FH score is based on two dimensions: I Political rights (the electoral process, political pluralism and participation, and the functioning of government). I Civil rights (freedom of expression and belief, associational and organizational rights, rule of law, and personal autonomy and individual rights). • Based on scores for political and civil rights, FH classifies countries as “Free,” “Partly Free,” and “Not Free.” 27 / 32
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Freedom House • Political rights: I A country is awarded 0–4 points for each of 10 questions. I Take the sum of these points and place on a 1–7 scale. • Civil rights: I A country is awarded 0–4 points for each of 15 questions. I Take the sum of these points and place on a 1–7 scale. • Take the average of these two 7-point scales and determine if a country is free (1–2.5), partly free (3–5.5), or not free (5.5–7). • In contrast to Dahl, DD, and Polity IV, FH takes a substantive view of democracy. 28 / 32
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Freedom House • Types of Political Rights Questions: I Is the head of state elected in free and fair elections? I Is there pervasive corruption? I Do people have the right to organize? I Is there a competitive opposition? I Do minorities have reasonable autonomy? 29 / 32
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Freedom House • Types of Civil Rights Questions: I Are the media free and independent? I Are there free religious organizations? I Is there equal treatment under the law? I Are there free trade unions? I Is there equality of opportunity? 30 / 32
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comparison of dd, polity iv, and freedom house 5: Democracy and Dictatorship 161 Democracy-Dictatorship Polity IV Freedom House Comparing Democracy and Dictatorship Scores in 2015 M AP 5.1 Source: Author created based on data from Cheibub, Gandhi, and Vreeland (2010); Marshall, Gurr, and Jaggers (2016); http://www.freedomhouse.org. 31 / 32
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reliability and validity Reliable, but Not Valid Valid, but Not Reliable Valid and Reliable Comparing the Reliability and Validity of Three Measures F IGURE 5.3 32 / 32
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