BIOL Exam 2 Final

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NAME: Jorge Itzak Urbina #80691404 BIOL 2311 – Exam 2 (47 questions; max score: 110 out of 100 points) Multiple choice questions. (40 points) Please select a single answer per question. 1 point per question 1. The hands and feet experience high amounts of abrasion. It contains so called thick skin having five epidermal strata. Which epidermal layer in thick skin consists of dead keratinocytes? a. stratum corneum b. stratum lucidum c. stratum granulosum d. a and b e. a, b, and c 2. A sonogram or an x-ray image of an eight weeks-old embryo would reveal that: a. synovial joints that resemble adult joints b. diaphysis of long bones well ossified c. ossified sutures between cranial bones d. a and b e. a, b, and c 3. While brushing their hair, a middle-aged person found gray hairs. Which of the following is a possible reason(s) for the presence the gray hairs? a. decreased melanin production b. increased bubbles in hair shaft c. increased dead keratinized cells d. a and b e. a, b, and c 4. Which of the following statements relating to bone classification by shape is incorrect? a. flat bones are thin and slightly curved b. irregular bones have complex shapes c. short bones have cuboid shapes d. all long bones are wider than they are long e. none of the above 5. Skeletal cartilages are avascular. They depend on __________ for nutrient delivery. a. chondrocytes b. collagen c. elastic fibers d. perichondrium e. none of the above 6. Which of the following statements relating to the hypodermis is incorrect? a. it is also called the subcutaneous layer b. it is part of the skin c. It is a storage site for body fat d. it is deep to the epidermal and dermal skin layers e. none of the above

7. Fingerprints are friction ridge type of skin markings. What gives rise to the bumpy nature of fingerprints? a. the superficial dermal ridges b. the deep papillary ridges c. openings of sweat glands d. a and b e. a, b, and c 8. Which of the following statements relating to the horny layer is incorrect? (1 point) a. it contains dead and flat keratinocytes b. it contains glycolipids in the intracellular space c. it functions to protect from abrasion d. it continually sheds dead cells e. none of the above 9. Adduction is characterized by movement towards the midline along the __________ plane. a. sagittal b. frontal c. transverse d. a and b e. a, b, and c 10. Which common joint injury type is characterized by ligaments being stretched or torn? a. cartilage tears b. sprains c. dislocations d. a and b e. a, b, and c 11. Which of the following statements about the cells of the epidermis is false? a. keratinocytes produce the fibrous keratin protein b. melanocytes produce the pigment melanin c. Langerhans cells produce macrophages d. Merkel cells send information to sensory neurons e. None of the above 12. Surgeons use cleavage lines as guides for incisions as they readily heal and produce less scarring. They are made of __________ fibers arranged in bundles. a. keratin b. elastin c. collagen d. a and b e. a, b, and c 13. The basal layer is the deepest epidermal layer. Which of the statements about it is inaccurate? a. it consists of a row of actively mitotic stem cells b. it contains melanin-producing melanocytes

c. it contains dermal dendritic cells d. it houses the “youngest” keratinocytes e. none of the above 14. In an anemic condition, the body can convert _____ from _____ to increase healthy red blood cell numbers. a. yellow marrow; red marrow b. hematopoietic cells; adipocytes c. red marrow; yellow marrow d. adipocytes; hematopoietic cells e. none of the above 15. A person has “slipped a disc” of the vertebral column, which structural classification joint type is disrupted? a. synovial b. synchondroses c. cartilaginous d. fibrous e. none of the above 16. __________ are rigid interlocking fibrous joints that allow for growth in youth? a. sutures b. synostoses c. symphyses d. a and b e. a, b, and c 17. Which of the following statements relating to the dermal layer is incorrect? a. it has two layers include thick papillary and thin reticular b. it contains macrophages for immune function c. its reticular layer is 80% of the entire dermal thickness d. its papillary layer is vascularized e. none of the above 18. The epidermis is mainly made of __________ tissue while the dermis is mainly made of __________ tissue? a. epithelium; connective b. connective; epithelium c. epithelium; epithelium d. connective; connective e. none of the above 19. The stratum spinosum or prickly layer contains cells that appear spikey, these cells called _____________. a. keratinocytes b. prekeratin filaments c. melanocytes d. desmosomes e. None of the above 20. Which of the following statements about periosteum is inaccurate?

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a. it covers spongy bone trabeculae and lines canals passing through the compact bone b. its osteogenic layer contains osteoblasts, osteoclasts, and osteogenic cells c. it is innervated by nerve fibers nutrient blood vessels and lymphatic vessels d. it is secured to the underlying bone by Sharpey’s fibers e. none of the above 21. _____ found in the _____ is the only pigment made in the skin that contributes to variations in skin color. a. carotene; dermis b. hemoglobin; dermis c. melanin; epidermis d. all of the above e. none of the above 22. Cartilage develops via _____ (matrix added externally) and via _____ (matrix added internally). a. appositional growth; calcification growth b. interstitial growth; appositional growth c . appositional growth; interstitial growth d. interstitial growth; calcification growth e. calcification growth; ossification growth 23. Osteoblasts secrete the organic bone matrix called osteoid. It is composed of the following, except for: a. collagen b. ground substance c. hydroxyapatites d. a and b e. a, b, and c 24. Gomphoses binds teeth to the bony alveolar sockets. The connection is facilitated by a ________. a. tendon b. cartilage c. ligament d. a and b e. b and c 25. Bone growth is controlled by hormones. Which hormone indirectly influences epiphyseal plate activity? a. growth hormone b. calcitonin c. thyroid hormone d. parathyroid hormone e. all of the above 26. The skin plays a vital role in vitamin D synthesis. Which of vitamin D synthesis steps happens in the skin? a. 7-dehydrocholesterol is converted into vitamin D3 b. UV absorption by 7-dehydrocholesterol c. vitamin D3 is converted into vitamin D

d. a and b e. a, b, and c 27. Which of the following statements about bone cells is false? a. osteoblasts are bone-forming cells that synthesize bone matrix b. osteoclasts are bone-destroying cells that break down bone matrix c. osteocytes are mature bone cells that maintain bone matrix d. osteogenic cells are stem cells giving rise to all bone cells e. none of the above 28. __________ is a type of postnatal bone growth that increases the __________ of long bones. a. appositional; thickness b. interstitial; length c. ossification; hardness d. a and b e. a, b, and c 29. Bursitis is the inflammation of bursae. Which of the following statements about bursae is incorrect? a. it acts to reduce friction where bones rub together b. it is lined with synovial membranes and contains synovial fluid c. it is not part of the synovial joint but closely associated with it d. it completely wraps around a tendon e. none of the above 30. Lyme disease: _____ disease caused by _____ transmitted by the bite of ticks that live on mice and deer. a. non-inflammatory; virus b. non-inflammatory; bacteria c. inflammatory; virus d. inflammatory; bacteria e. none of the above 31. Which of the following statements relating to burns is false? a. it is tissue damage caused by extreme heat b. first-degree burns have damage only in the epidermis c. second-degree burns include damage in the upper dermal layer d. third-degree burns exhibit damage in the entire skin thickness e. None of the above 32. Which type of bone development involved replacement of hyaline cartilage with bone? a. appositional growth b. interstitial growth c. Intramembranous growth d. endochondral growth e. none of the above 33. Synovial joint stability is determined by the __________ that plays a __________ role. a. shapes of articular surface; minor

b. ligament number and location; limited c. muscle tone; major d. a and b e. a, b, and c 34. Which of the following statements about the developmental aspects of bone is inaccurate? a. in children and adolescents, bone formation is greater than bone resorption b. in old age, bone formation is less than bone resorption c. almost all bones are completely ossified by age 25 d. bone mass declines starting at age 40 e. None of the above 35. The bones in the human skeleton serve many important physiological roles. Which of the following statements is not a bone function? a. it provides a framework that supports the body b. it acts as a mineral and growth factor reservoir c. it is a key site for hematopoiesis d. it serves as levers for skeletal muscle action e. none of the above 36. All muscles attach to bone or connective tissue at no fewer than two points including an origin and insertion. Muscle contraction causes the _________ to move towards the __________. a. insertion; origin b. origin; origin c. origin; insertion d. insertion; insertion e. none of the above 37. The long bone structure includes epiphyses, diaphysis, and membranes. Which of following statements relating to long bone structure is incorrect? a. the epiphyses are made up of the internal spongy bone surrounded by compact bone b. the epiphyseal plate is the remnant of the growth line, where bone growth occurs c. the diaphysis has a marrow cavity containing yellow marrow in adults d. a and b e. a, b, and c 38. Compact bone contains structures that serve as passageways for blood vessels, veins, and nerves. Which of the following anatomical structure found in compact bone is a non-canal structure? a. Haversian canal b. Volkmann’s canal c. lacunae d. canaliculi e. none of the above 39. Which of the following statements about Paget’s disease is incorrect? a. its cause is unknown and possibly viral b. it can be treated by calcitonin and bisphosphonates c. it is characterized by excessive and haphazard bone formation and breakdown

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d. it is characterized by Pagetic bone having a high ratio of compact to spongy bone e. None of the above 40. An individual accidentally runs into a concrete post. In turn, dislocates their temporomandibular joint. Which of the following jaw movements may be affected in the patient? a. pivot b. hinge c. gliding d. a and b e. b and c Short answer questions. (70 points) All responses must be written in complete sentences and in short paragraph form (not in bullet point or in table format). Each answer should be written the student’s own words – copying word for word text from the textbook, lecture slides, online sources or any other material is considered plagiarized content. 41. Keratinocytes are the major cellular components of the epidermis. They are found in the four major epidermal strata: basale, spinosum, granulosum and corneum. Explain the characteristics of and the changes in the keratinocytes as they journey from the deepest to the most superficial epidermal strata. (10 points; maximum 10 sentences) Keratinocytes are specialized cells found in the epidermal layer of the skin, and they synthesize keratin. Stratum Basile is the bottom layer and is characterized by stem cells and melanocytes, which multiply and produce keratinocytes and are sometimes referred to as germinativum. Stratum spinosum is the second bottom layer and contains 8-10 rows of layers, and the cells are irregular and polyhedral. It has spines that extend outward, and they use desmosomes in contacting the neighboring cells. It also consists of dendritic cells. Stratum granulosum comprises 3-5 layers, and the cells present are of diamond shape. These cells have lamellar granules and keratohyalin granules. The stratum corneum has 20-30 layers and is the most superficial layer. It consists of keratin and horny scales containing keratin cells that are dead (nuclease squamous cells). It is the thickest layer, and defensins that make up the body's first-line defense are secreted here. 42. Our skin discharges two types of secretions via glands. Explain the similarities and differences across the three different glands secreting either sweat or sebum (hint: include the specific secretion and secretion composition, mode of emission, and secretion function). (10 points; maximum 10 sentences) Gland’s secreting sweat or sebum include eccrine, apocrine, and apoeccrine. The eccrine sweat glands are the most numerous and are responsible for the high production of sweat. They are found in both hairy and non-hairy skin and are more in the palms. Sweat from these glands has more water, and sodium chloride and chemicals from the interstitial fluid are present. The Apocrine sweat gland is located in the axilla, breasts, face, scalp, and perineum. The gland remains dormant until at puberty stage. They produce viscous sweat, which has ammonia, proteins, and sugars. These glands lead to the production of body odor through the production

of pheromones. Apocrine sweat glands are intermediate in size and are found only in the axillary region. Copious saltwater secretion is secreted, reduces body heat, and is more sensitive to cholinergic stimuli. 43. Bone remodeling is a lifelong process that is tightly regulated by factors including hormones that maintain blood calcium homeostasis. Compare and contrast the processes by which parathyroid hormone versus calcitonin regulates blood calcium levels. (8 points; maximum 8 sentences) The parathyroid gland produces the parathyroid hormone. The hormone increases the calcium level in the blood by stimulating osteoclasts to release calcium from the bones. When the calcium levels are low, calcium-sensing receptors are activated. This triggers release of the PTH into the blood. Calcitonin is a hormone produced by the parafollicular cells of the thyroid and reduces the calcium in the blood. It prevents osteoclasts from forming calcium and releasing it into the blood. It also decreases the withdrawal of calcium from the kidneys, thus ensuring a reduction in calcium. These two hormones are antagonistic as they work opposite of each other. 44. An individual is taken to the hospital after an accidental slip and fall during a hiking trip. X-Ray imaging revealed that the patient has a completely fractured tibia. After reduction of the broken ends and immobilization via a cast, the patient is sent home and is advised that it may take between 3-6 months to fully heal. Identify and describe each of the four stages of bone fracture repair. (12 points; maximum 12 sentences) The bone fracture repair takes place in four stages. The stage of hematoma is the first and takes up to 7 days. When the bone gets fractured, blood leaks out through the tone vessels in the bone-forming hematoma around the fracture. The injured blood vessels are covered through formation of clot. Bone generation: here, capillaries develop, and the dead cells are replaced. The bone begins to reform by fibroblast and osteoblasts gaining entry into the area. Collagen fibers then grow which connects the spongy bone to the broken bone. Bone spicules appear. Bony callus formation: the bony callus is formed and takes a more time period for the bone to join firmly. Bone remodeling is the last stage. Here the osteoblasts, and osteoclasts remodel the bone callus. The excess material on the outside is removed, and a resemblance of the bone is formed by adding compact bone. The remodeling may take a more extended period before the bone attains its original model.

45. Almost all diseases affecting the human skeleton is due to the disproportionate activity of osteoblasts and osteoclasts. This homeostatic imbalance is driven in part by risk factors including poor dietary calcium intake. Explain the similarities and differences between the key characteristics of and risk factors for osteomalacia versus osteoporosis. (8 points; maximum 8 sentences) Osteomalacia It is characterized by soft bones, while in osteoporosis, bones are porous and brittle where the mass of the bone is reduced. Osteoporosis occurs due to an imbalance in bone resorption and bone formation and insufficient bone peak mass. Osteomalacia shows inadequate mineralization of bones. Treatment of the condition osteomalacia can be through injection of vitamin D, whereas in osteoporosis, a healthy lifestyle and calcium supplements can be used. In terms of causes, osteoporosis is caused by a deficiency in calcium, phosphorus, drugs, alcohol drinking, and inherited endocrine disorders. The similarity is that both conditions affect the bones. The risk factor for osteoporosis is poor nutrition, cigarette smoking, and lack of exercise to list a few. The risk factors for osteomalacia include a diet low in milk products, low in phosphate, vitamin D, environmental conditions like limited sunlight, cancers, and anti-seizure medications. 46. Almost all limb joints in the human skeleton are synovial joints, which are diarthrotic. List and explain the six features that make synovial joints distinct from the other joint types. (12 points; maximum 12 sentences) Synovia joints are distinct from other types of joints in several characteristics. They contain a joint capsule that holds the ends of the bone together. The capsule consists of the fibrous and synovia layer. They include the synovial membrane, which produces synovial fluid. It also ensures the joint capsule is streamlined. The fluid helps in preventing friction that can occurs when bones collide against each other. It has a joint cavity which is the space between the bones and the joint. Articulate cartilage is another distinguishing feature and cushions the articulating bone surfaces. The cartilage is made of soft tissues. The bones are not bound to each other and thus allowing free movement of bones. Ligaments connect one bone to another. Finally have articular disks, which are cartilage pads between the articulating surface. 47. Arthritis includes over a hundred different types of inflammatory or degenerative diseases that injure joints. Compare and contrast osteoarthritis versus

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rheumatoid arthritis versus gouty arthritis (hint: include key features, causes, and effects on joints). (10 points; maximum 10 sentences) Arthritis is made of different types. Rheumatoid arthritis is an autoimmune disease where it destroys the self instead of the intruders. It lacks the synovial membrane and targets several joints at a time. It manifests through fever, anemia, fatigue, loss of appetite. Osteoarthritis occurs when the smooth cartilage joint surface wears out and usually begins in an isolated joint. It happens with age, but obesity and joint injuries can trigger it. It is characterized by pain when walking, stiffness after resting, deep aching pain. The joint may be swollen, warm to the touch. Gouty arthritis is the buildup of uric acid crystals in a joint and mainly occurs on the big toe. It is characterized by intense joint pain, discomfort, inflammation, redness of the joint, and difficulty in movement.

BIOL Exam 2 Final

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