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Running head: CRIMINOLOGY 1 Criminology Justice Question Student’s Name Institutional Affiliation

CRIMINOLOGY 2 Question 1 a) What percent of Americans are offline? About 10% of Americans remain offline How do you think people who are offline are different than those who are online? People who don't have internet access are probably less technologically savvy, less well-off, and less likely to reside in urban centers. They may not have the same values as those who are online, which might reduce the reliability of data collected via online polls and surveys. Do you think these differences could impact the election? How so? The election may be affected by these disparities. Election outcomes may be affected if surveys and polls are conducted with unrepresentative samples due to the divide between online and offline voters. A survey's or poll's findings might be skewed if an offline subset of the population held views or voted differently from their online counterparts. b) How does the Pew Research Center select their American Trends Panel? A mix of random-digit-dialing and address-based sampling is used by the Pew Research Centre to choose members for their American Trends Panel. To guarantee that the panel is really representative of the American people, they use a scientific method called probability sampling.

CRIMINOLOGY 3 How is an opt in survey different in terms of how subjects are selected? Opt-in surveys are dependent on respondents willingly enrolling themselves to partake in the survey. This methodology may introduce self-selection bias, given that individuals who elect to partake may possess dissimilar viewpoints or attributes in comparison to those who abstain. Consequently, opt-in surveys might lack representativeness with regard to the wider populace. Additionally, adjusting for non-response bias and weighing opt-in surveys can be difficult, which can further compromise the results' precision. What are some downsides of the opt in surveys? Opt-in surveys are associated with many drawbacks, including the possibility of biassed samples, limited representativeness, and challenges in quantifying and addressing non-response bias. c) What are some qualities of rigorous surveys or political polls? The findings of every survey or political poll worth its salt will display the following characteristics. Some of these characteristics include prioritizing probability-based sampling methods to minimize selection bias, using a sufficient sample size to minimize sampling error, using unbiased questions and wording to avoid response bias, maintaining transparency and thoroughness in the methodology, and including details about response rates and weighting techniques. When taken as a whole, these factors strengthen the reliability and validity of the poll or survey. Question 2

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CRIMINOLOGY 4 A) List and define the 3 criteria for causality. Temporal precedence, correlation, and the lack of confounding factors are the three conditions for causation. Playing violent video games, in this scenario, is thought to be a source of the consequence of increased aggressiveness. A cause-and-effect connection is assumed in a correlation, thus it makes sense that if one variable changes, so would the other. To demonstrate a direct relationship between cause and effect, it is necessary to conduct a research in which all possible confounding variables have been accounted for or excluded. B) There is insufficient evidence to establish that playing violent video games makes people more aggressive. The study's findings of a statistically significant correlation between the two variables do not yet satisfy the requirements for causation. There is no indication of when the claimed hostility occurred in relation to the video game exposure; therefore it is unable to draw any conclusions about temporal precedence. Furthermore, it is unclear whether or not other relevant factors, such as individual characteristics or exposure to real-world violence, were accounted for in the research, casting doubt on the lack of confounding variables. This first result is only correlational; more study is required to establish causation and all three causality requirements must be met.

CRIMINOLOGY 5 References Salimi, B., Rodriguez, L., Howe, B., & Suciu, D. (2019, June). Interventional fairness: Causal database repair for algorithmic fairness. In Proceedings of the 2019 International Conference on Management of Data (pp. 793-810). Kühn, S., Kugler, D. T., Schmalen, K., Weichenberger, M., Witt, C., & Gallinat, J. (2019). Does playing violent video games cause aggression? A longitudinal intervention study. Molecular psychiatry , 24 (8), 1220-1234. Baumann, L., & Utz, S. (2021). Professional networking: Exploring differences between offline and online networking. Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace , 15 (1).

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