PSYC3225_Exam3_StudyGuide_F19

PSYC3225(003) – Exam 3 Study Guide Appetitive Conditioning: Behavior/response associated with a positive outcome ; Approach behavior Skinner versus everyone What learning environments were used by Skinner, Tolman, & Thorndike? Pg. 126 ● Skinner -Operant conditioning (reinforcement) ○ Reinforcer: any outcome that increases frequency of a behavior ■ Observation & measurement ■ Not tied to internal or mental state ● Thorndike -Law of effect ○ Reward → satisfied state → increases behavior ○ Proposed that stimulus-response connections develop as a result of reward. Conditioned stimuli have a power over instrumental activity ● Tolman -Instrumental conditioning ○ Escape maze → get food → conditioning over ○ Environment constrains reinforcement ■ One behavior leads to reward ■ Single opportunity to receive reinforcer What are the differences in the definitions of reinforcer & reward? ● Reinforcer : any outcome that increases frequency of a behavior; refers to operant conditioning ● Reward : Reward → satisfied state → increases behavior; used in instrumental conditioning situations What are differences between operant & instrumental conditioning? ● Instrumental: discrete measurements ○ Time to complete ○ Number of errors ● Operant: continuous measurements ○ Response frequency ○ Response rate

○ Response intensity Environment: opportunity vs. constraint Measurement: continuous vs. discrete What are positive & negative reinforcement? ● Positive reinforcement: ○ Event/stimulus added to environment ● Negative reinforcement: ○ Event/stimulus removed from environment ● Negative reinforcement ≠ punishment ○ Reinforcement always increases behavior! What are the basic schedules of reinforcement? Continuous ● Reinforce EVERYTIME ● Most rapid learning Partial ● Reinforce SOMETIMES ● MORE DURABLE learning Interval-time Ratio-amount of responses Fixed Ratio : requires the completion of a certain number of responses before obtaining reinforcement. Ex. Reward cards(buy 10 get 1 free), doing 20 sit ups to keep fit Variable Ratio : the number of responses required to obtain reinforcement varies around a particular number. Ex. Playing the lottery, slot machines, gambling Fixed Interval : only the first response that occurs after a certain amount of time has passed obtains reinforcement. Ex. Taking a quiz every Friday, getting clean clothes from the washing machine once the cycle is finished

○ Classically conditioned: CS; has developed its reinforcing properties through its association with primary reinforcers ex. Money ○ Examples: ■ Money → food ■ Clicker & feeder training ■ The three $5 chips Traci received for getting a 21 playing blackjack were secondary reinforcers. The beer she was served while playing blackjack was a primary reinforcer. Magazine training What factors influencing reinforcement & how do they influence learning? Reinforcer intensity : ● Greater reinforcement = faster acquisition ● Lower reinforcement = less motivation ○ Smaller change in performance Delay of reinforcement : Delay between behavior and reinforcement reduces learning (lever pressing) History of reinforcer magnitude What are positive & negative behavioral contrasts? Positive : experience with low reward heightens the influence of a high reward; a large reward is more effective than it normally would be because of previous experience with a smaller reward Negative : experience exaggerates the impact of a low reward magnitude; a small reward is less effective than it would normally be because of experience with a larger reward What are the elation & depression effects? ● Depression effect : the effect in which a shift from high to low reward magnitude produces a lower level of response than if the reward magnitude had always been low pg. 142 ● Elation effect : the effect in which shift from low to high reward magnitude produces a greater level of responding

than if the reward magnitude had always been high pg. 143 How does the amygdala influence reinforcement? ● processes emotion & emotion memory ● Amygdala lesions eliminate depression effect Extinction How does the extinction burst influence the rate of responses? ● Increase behavior immediately following end of reinforcement ● Treat behavior problems in humans → sometimes looks as though treatment is making problem worse What changes in behavior are observed during extinction? Behavioral variability : Extinction can lead to an increase in behavior variability Ex. She changes her study methods and begins reviewing material before and after class, making flash cards for new material after each class, creating mnemonics for the different statistics tests, and visualizing statistics equations and probability distributions with meditating. Resurgence : Reappearance of previously extinguished behavior that occurs when a more recently reinforced response is extinguished; The reappearance of previously effective behavior during extinction Ex. A husband faced with a wife who largely ignores him might begin spending increasing amounts of time at his parents' house to make up for lack of attention Emotional response : Extinction can lead to emotional responses (e.g., aggressive behaviors) Ex. Rats bite food levers, humans yell at vending machines What is the partial reinforcement effect (PRE) ? partial reinforcement is more resistance to extinction than continuous reinforcement

What are the steps of contingency contracting? ● Develop reinforcement schedule for desired/ideal behavior(s) ● Setting schedule of reinforcement ● Shaping procedures ○ “Road map” of contingency changes as goals are met ● Train client (or guardians) to self-reinforce ○ Bandura & Perloff (1967): self-reinforcement is effective for modifying behaviors! ○ Self-reinforcement is a concept present throughout therapy & society! ● DRO & DRA ○ Setting boundaries in relationships ○ Replace self-injury with sensory behavior ○ Emotion regulation practices when feeling out of control ○ Grounding exercises when dissociating ● Token economies ○ Reinforcement system using secondary reinforcers ○ “Monetary” economy ● Differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO) ○ Reinforcement for not using substance ● Differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA) ○ Reinforce positive, healthy, & recovery behaviors ○ Withhold reinforcement when problem behavior is exhibited Aversive Conditioning What are positive & negative punishment? ● Positive punishment: ○ Providing aversive event to reduce frequency of a behavior ○ Ex. Speeding ticket for speeding, Spanking a child ● Negative punishment: ○ Removing appetitive event to reduce frequency of a behavior ○ Ex. no TV time, Child's toy is taken for fighting with sibling, What are escape & avoidance conditioning? Escape : performing a behavior which ends aversive stimulus ● Escaping alarm in the morning by waking up ● Escaping distress by getting intoxicated

● Dog attack example: ● Walking down the street ○ You are attacked by a dog → you run into a store to escape the attack ○ In the future you are likely to run inside to escape a dog attack Avoidance : performance (or non-performance) of behavior which prevents aversive stimulus ● Avoiding going to jail: ○ Hiring a lawyer ○ Not committing a felony ● Avoiding cold: ○ Wearing winter jacket/hoodie ○ Not wearing t-shirt ● Dog attack example: ○ Walking down the street ○ You are attacked by a dog ○ In the future you: ○ Avoid walking that route (CS-), by walking a new route (CS+) How do they relate to negative reinforcement? - They are forms of NR How is a shuttle box used in escape and avoidance conditioning? What factors influence escape conditioning? Intensity of aversive event Level of reinforcement: Intensity of negative reinforcement

M odeling aggression : c onditioned fear of punisher ● Bandura’s Bobo study ● Child more likely to use aggressive behaviors to try to regulate behavior of other kids G eneralized suppression : Suppression generalizes to other behaviors R einforcing the punisher : ● Conditioned fear of punisher ● Reinforcement of punishing behavior ○ A punishment is effective → punisher experiences reinforcement ■ Negative reinforcement: reduced frustration experienced by the punisher ○ Increases likelihood punishment will be used to solve troublesome behavior in the future Applications What is learned helplessness? belief that aversive events are uncontrollable and cannot be ended by changing behavior ● Passive resignation due to repeated exposure to unescapable/unavoidable negative events ● Develop belief/expectation of futility of effort to improve situation What mental health issue does learned helplessness provide a research model for? ● Animal model of clinical depression Is there evidence learned helplessness occurs in adults? They do have influence but effects are small Theory

Appetitive conditioning Premack principle (probability differential theory): suggests that all reinforcers share a common attribute. according to Premack, a reinforcer is any activity whose probability of occurring is greater than that of the reinforced activity. Ex . watching TV can be a reinforcer for making one’s bed if the likelihood of watching TV is greater than the probability of making one’s bed. In his view, watching tv is the reinforcer Ex . do a certain amount of studying, you can have a nap Response deprivation (pg. 203) 1. Natural frequency of an activity does NOT determine if it is reinforcing 2. Restrict typical frequency of an activity below desired/natural levels ○ Reinforcer : return restricted behavior to desired/natural level ○ Conditioned behavior : reach level necessary to return restricted response to desired levels ● Example: ○ Typical frequency for a rat to eat ○ Response deprivation: restricted food leads to less eating behavior ○ Eating can now be used as a reinforcer What do these theories predict about high/low frequency behaviors & reinforcement? ● Reinforcing activity : high natural probability ● Conditioned activity : low natural probability ● Less frequent behaviors cannot reinforce more frequent behaviors ● Slide 3 on 08 theories appetitive Aversive conditioning Two-factor theory of avoidance learning ( pg. 212 ) ● We are escaping a feared stimulus ● Ex. Edmond’s drinking behavior: In the first stage, Edmond became afraid of his boss as a result of being severely reprimanded for a mistake on a report, while in the second stage, stopping at a bar and drinking reduced his fear

Research Premack (1967): Premack principle pinballers ● Phase 1: measured time spent using each machine (baselines) ○ Pinballers : children who used pinball machine more frequently ○ Eaters : children who used the candy machine more frequently ● Phase 2 ○ Pinballers: eat candy to play pinball ○ Eaters: play pinball to eat candy ● Results ○ More frequent behavior reinforced less frequent behavior ■ Pinballers ate more candy so they could play pinball ■ Eaters played more pinball so they could eat candy Timberlake & Allison (1974): response deprivation water drinking rats Premack principle vs. response deprivation ● Supports response deprivation ● Refutes Premack principle ● Phase 1: baseline measurements ○ Observed rats in a cage with a running wheel and water ○ Frequency: water drinking > wheel running ● Phase 2: Restrict running wheel access ○ Access to the running wheel contingent upon drinking water ○ Water → running wheel ● Predictions ○ Premack : running wheel will not reinforce drinking water ○ Response deprivation : running wheel will reinforce drinking water ● Results ○ Rats drank more water to gain access to the running wheel! ○ Running was effective reinforcer despite being less frequent activity Campbell & Kraeling (1953): magnitude of negative reinforcement & escape conditioning ● Escape 400 v shock in alley ● IV: shock reduction in “safe” box ○ 0, 100, 200, 300 v ● Results: ○ Greater shock reduction: ■ Faster run speed ■ Shorter escape time

Skinner (1938): ineffectiveness of paw slap punishments ● Strongly opposed ● Believed only temporary suppression of behavior Seligman & Maier (1967): learned helplessness puppies Part 1 ● Dogs shocked 64 times ● Light + shock ● End shock with head press ● One group of dogs strapped in with hammock & cannot escape / avoid shock Part 2 ● 3 groups of dogs ● No escape shock dogs ● Escape shock dogs ● Control (no shock) dogs ● Will they learn to jump to escape / avoid signaled shock?