AB539 S&HB Study Guide Unit 4 Ch 15-18 Fall 2013

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Study guide for “ Science and Human Behavior ”, Skinner, 1953 Unit 4, Ch 15-18, Items 130-162. Place your original answer immediately following each numbered item below and use red or blue font for your answers. SECTION III: THE INDIVIDUAL AS A WHOLE XV “SELF-CONTROL” (p 227) 130. What is the theoretical value of experimentally verifying a reliable functional relation? The theoretical value lies in the ability to understand and predict behavior based on identified functional relationships. Experimentally verifying these relationships allows for the establishment of control over variables that influence behavior, thus enabling precise predictions and manipulations within experimental settings. This forms the cornerstone of scientific inquiry, as it provides empirical evidence that supports theoretical models. 131. Skinner asserts but does not explain why a functional analysis has advantages over inferential statistics. Can you think of why a professional statistician like Jack Michael would give up teaching statistics and adopt a science focused on experimentally demonstrating “functional analysis”? (If not sure of this answer, it is ok to skip it…) Skinner argues that functional analysis has advantages over inferential statistics because it focuses on the direct manipulation and observation of variables affecting behavior, providing clearer, more actionable insights. A professional statistician like Jack Michael might shift to functional analysis to engage in more concrete, experimental demonstrations of behavior, which could offer more definitive and practical outcomes compared to the often abstract and inferential nature of statistics. 132. Why is the practical value of demonstrating functional relations “even greater” (than the theoretical value alluded to above)? The practical value is even greater because demonstrating functional relations allows for the development of techniques to manipulate behavior. This has direct applications in various fields such as psychology, education, and therapy. It enables the creation of behavioral interventions that can effectively address issues like addiction, phobias, and behavioral disorders, leading to significant improvements in individual and societal well-being. 133. Before considering the various ways in which social control is exerted over the behavior of an individual, Skinner suggests that first “we must consider the possibility that the individual may control his (sic) own behavior”. 134. Skinner states “In emphasizing the controlling power of external variables, we have left the organism itself in a peculiarly helpless position.” (p. 228). Explain this statement. Skinner’s statement that “In emphasizing the controlling power of external variables, we have left the organism itself in a peculiarly helpless position”

highlights the criticism that behaviorism may neglect the organism’s potential for self-control and agency. By focusing solely on external factors, the internal capacities of individuals to influence their own behavior are underemphasized, which can present a skewed view of human behavior as overly deterministic and passive 135. When we engage in activities said to exemplify instances of self-control what does Skinner suggest we are doing? Skinner suggests we are manipulating the variables of which behavior is a function. Essentially, we are behaving in ways that alter the conditions influencing other behaviors, thus exercising control over ourselves similarly to how we might control others. 136. So, in this view, do we need to abandon a behavior analytic conceptual framework and “throw in the towel” on pursuing a scientific account of behavior? Explain why or why not. Skinner’s view does not require abandoning a behavior analytic framework. Instead, it involves incorporating self-control as part of the same scientific inquiry. He proposes that the principles governing self-control are the same as those used in understanding and manipulating other behaviors, thus fitting within a comprehensive scientific account of behavior. 137. Is the person who appears to engage in a successful array of “self-control” strategies someone who has “the right stuff” or are those responses to be accounted for by something other than trait psychology? Explain. Skinner suggests that successful self-control strategies are not due to inherent traits or “the right stuff” but are behaviors that can be analyzed and understood through the same principles that govern other behaviors. This perspective moves away from trait psychology, emphasizing instead the role of environmental variables and learned behaviors in effective self-control 138. Skinner suggests that self-control repertoires might be particularly useful when a given response has conflicting consequences. (P230) Elaborate on this. Skinner posits that self-control repertoires are particularly useful when a response has conflicting consequences. For instance, drinking alcohol might provide immediate positive reinforcement through social ease but has negative long-term consequences like hangovers and health issues. Self-control techniques can help manage these conflicts by reinforcing behaviors that avoid negative outcomes while still seeking positive reinforcement in other ways 139. Differentiate between the controlling response and the controlled response. (P 231) The controlling response is the behavior that alters the variables affecting another behavior, which is the controlled response. For example, setting an alarm (controlling response) to wake up early (controlled response) is a way of using one behavior to manage another. This distinction helps clarify how individuals can influence their own actions through self-imposed modifications 140. Skinner describes nine general techniques of engaging in self-control. Explain THREE of these techniques and include examples of each.  Physical Restraint: Limiting one’s physical ability to perform a behavior, such as putting a hand over the mouth to prevent speaking out of turn.

 Changing the Stimulus: Altering the environment to influence behavior, like removing tempting foods from sight to avoid overeating.  Deprivation and Satiation: Adjusting levels of deprivation or satiation to influence behavior, such as eating a small meal before attending a dinner party to avoid overeating. 141. So does Skinner believe that “self-control” has its origins within the organism or in the history of the organism? Explain. Skinner believes that self-control has its origins in the history of the organism rather than within the organism itself. This perspective emphasizes the role of learned behaviors and environmental interactions in the development of self- control strategies, aligning with the broader behaviorist framework that focuses on external influences and learned responses XVI THINKING (p 242) 142. What distinction does Skinner draw between self-control and “making a decision”? How are these processes similar? Skinner distinguishes between self-control and "making a decision" by emphasizing the predictability and specificity of the outcomes involved in self- control compared to the indeterminate nature of decision-making. In self-control, alternative actions are specified in advance, and the individual applies techniques to achieve a predetermined outcome, allowing for efficient control and planning. Conversely, decision-making involves scenarios where the outcomes are not predictable, requiring the individual to determine which course of action to follow. This process of deciding entails manipulating variables influencing behavior, but unlike self-control, the techniques are more limited due to the uncertain outcome. Despite these differences, both processes involve manipulating internal variables, whether private or public. Furthermore, making a decision resembles self-control in that similar techniques can be used both in self-regulation and in aiding others to make up their minds without biasing their choice towards any particular outcome. Thus, while both processes share common elements in managing behavior, they diverge in their predictability and specificity of outcomes. 143. What are supplementary sources of strength and how are they related to Skinner’s analysis of thinking? In Skinner’s analysis of thinking, supplementary sources of strength are external stimuli or additional factors that can influence the strength of a behavior when making a decision. These sources act similarly to prompts or probes that enhance the probability of one course of action over another. When faced with a decision, such as choosing between a vacation in the mountains or at the seashore, individuals might engage with supplementary sources like travel magazines, weather forecasts, and friends' plans to sway their decision. These supplementary sources do not execute the final decision but rather bolster the decision-making process by providing additional motivational and informational

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support. In this way, Skinner conceptualizes thinking and deciding as behaviors influenced by external factors that can be manipulated to favor certain outcomes. 144. Describe some environmental factors that influence the development and maintenance of decision making behavior. Environmental factors play a pivotal role in shaping decision-making behavior. Social influences from friends, family, and societal norms, coupled with the availability of information through various channels like travel magazines and online reviews, heavily impact our choices. External stimuli, such as advertisements and visual cues, can prompt certain preferences, while operant conditioning, like making down payments for reservations, reinforces decisions made. Additionally, the fear of aversive consequences, like social pressure or disappointment, can motivate adherence to announced decisions. Competing reinforcements, such as health considerations and personal preferences, often lead to a complex decision-making process. Moreover, environmental factors can trigger cognitive biases, further influencing decision outcomes. Collectively, these environmental influences shape not only the process of deciding but also the actions taken thereafter. 145. “Recall” is the search for a response that cannot be specified in advance. How do you go about “recalling” the name of an old acquaintance, or an important date or the answer to the questions, “What did you have for dinner yesterday?”? While the specific response cannot be predetermined, various techniques can be employed to facilitate the retrieval of that information. For instance, you might mentally review past interactions with the individual whose name you're trying to remember, describe the circumstances surrounding your previous encounters, or categorize details such as cultural associations or distinctive features of the name. These thematic probes help trigger relevant memories associated with the target information. Additionally, formal probes, like reciting stress patterns or the alphabet, can stimulate the recall process through verbal repetition. Moreover, setting up aversive conditions, such as the pressure to introduce someone whose name you've forgotten, can create a heightened motivation to recall the information. Ultimately, by utilizing these techniques, you strengthen the neural pathways associated with the desired response, allowing it to emerge even when it couldn't be specified in advance. So, recalling involves actively manipulating conditions and employing various cognitive strategies to facilitate the retrieval of specific information from memory. 146. Define a true “problem situation” and also a solution to the problem. Then give an original example from your own experience. A true "problem situation" arises when an individual faces a condition where no immediate behavior is available to alleviate deprivation or escape aversive stimulation. In such scenarios, the individual must find a response to alter the situation, allowing for the emission of the desired behavior. A solution to a problem is simply a response that changes the circumstances, enabling the individual to emit the required behavior. For instance, finding the key to a locked drawer, refilling a stalled car with gasoline, or identifying the murderer in a mystery are all examples of solutions to respective problems. In my own

experience, I encountered a problem situation when I had to organize a large event with limited resources and a tight deadline. The solution involved strategic planning, resource allocation, and effective communication to ensure all necessary tasks were completed on time and within budget. 147. How does Skinner specifically define problem solving? So why is “solving the problem” (that is, emitting the problem solution response) not what Skinner means by problem solving? Skinner specifically defines problem-solving as any behavior that increases the likelihood of a solution through the manipulation of variables. Solving the problem, in Skinner's terms, does not merely entail emitting the problem solution response. Rather, it involves the active process of finding the solution by engaging in behaviors that make the appearance of a solution more probable. Simply emitting a solution does not guarantee that problem-solving has occurred; it may result from accidental environmental changes or random exploration. Thus, problem-solving encompasses the deliberate manipulation of variables to increase the likelihood of a solution, rather than just emitting a response. 148. What is the difference between trial and error learning and problem solving, according to Skinner? The difference between trial-and-error learning and problem-solving, according to Skinner, lies in the nature of the behavior exhibited. Trial-and-error learning involves the emission of various responses in the presence of a problem, with the hope that one of them will lead to a solution. This type of learning often entails random exploration or the repetition of previously reinforced behaviors. Problem- solving, on the other hand, involves the deliberate manipulation of variables to increase the likelihood of a solution. It requires the active engagement of the individual in behaviors that make the appearance of a solution more probable, rather than relying solely on chance or random exploration. 149. Why does Skinner argue that the sudden appearance of a solution to a problem after a period of not overtly working on a solution, need not imply that the individual was “working on the problem subconsciously”? Skinner argues that the sudden appearance of a solution to a problem after a period of not overtly working on a solution need not imply that the individual was "working on the problem subconsciously" because variables change automatically over time. While it's tempting to attribute the solution to unconscious problem-solving, Skinner suggests that changes in variables during the interim period may naturally lead to a solution without any active subconscious processing occurring. For example, variables that previously interfered with a solution may weaken, while supporting variables may emerge, facilitating the emergence of a solution. Therefore, the appearance of a solution as a surprise does not necessarily indicate subconscious problem-solving but rather changes in relevant variables over time. 150. Is there an analogy or parallel between the origins of “self-control” and original thoughts or ideas? Explain. There is an analogy between the origins of "self-control" and original thoughts or ideas. Just as self-control ultimately rests with environmental variables shaping controlling behavior, the emergence of original ideas is influenced by

manipulations of variables. Skinner discusses how ideas may arise from the manipulation of stimuli in problem-solving processes. While some responses may be imitative or controlled by explicit stimuli, truly original ideas result from manipulations of variables that haven't followed rigid formulas and have other sources of strength. Thus, both self-control and original ideas stem from the manipulation of environmental variables, suggesting a parallel in their origins. 151. Does it make more sense to to say that man is in better control of the environment or that the environment has gained more precise control over the behavior of people? Explain. It makes more sense to say that the environment has gained more precise control over the behavior of people. Skinner argues that man's control over the world is facilitated by reinforcing contingencies shaping individual behavior, with novel contingencies generating novel forms of behavior. As time passes, individuals react to more subtle features of their environment, leading to more effective ways of responding. Educational agencies further transmit the results of environmental contingencies, enabling individuals to acquire effective behavior on a vast scale. Therefore, while it may appear that man is in better control of the environment, this control is actually facilitated by the environment exerting precise control over behavior through reinforcing contingencies. 152. Why can we not provide a rigorous account of the originality of important ideas in the history of science? What is our fall back position in accounting for the history of scientific discovery and technological advancement? We cannot provide a rigorous account of the originality of important ideas in the history of science because many relevant facts have become unavailable. However, Skinner suggests that we can provide plausible accounts of how certain ideas might have occurred by studying the history of science. By minimizing the contribution made by any one individual and understanding the context in which ideas arose, we can offer plausible explanations for the origin of important ideas. Therefore, while a rigorous account may not be feasible due to limited available information, studying the history of science allows us to provide plausible explanations for the emergence of important ideas. 153. While the view that creative thinking may be accounted for within a natural science framework may be offensive to some, what are some possible compensatory advantages that may result from such a perspective? While the view that creative thinking may be accounted for within a natural science framework may be offensive to some, there are possible compensatory advantages. Identifying originality with spontaneity or an absence of lawfulness in behavior can make it seem hopeless to teach or influence thinking processes. However, Skinner suggests that understanding thinking as a function of environmental variables enables us to improve educational practices and teach individuals how to think more effectively. By recognizing that thinking is subject to environmental influences, we can utilize educational methods that harness the full potential of the thinking organism, whether individual or collective. Thus, while the perspective may challenge traditional views of creativity, it offers practical benefits in improving educational practices and maximizing human potential.

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XVII PRIVATE EVENTS IN A NATURAL SCIENCE (p 257) 154. Is the environment of events capable of exerting stimulus control limited to events outside the organism? Explain. The environment of events capable of exerting stimulus control is not limited solely to events outside the organism. While external stimuli certainly play a significant role in influencing behavior, internal events within the organism, such as physiological states or sensations, can also exert stimulus control. For example, consider the response to an inflamed tooth mentioned in the passage. The individual's reaction to the pain and discomfort from the inflamed tooth is unique and specific to their own physiological condition. Similarly, emotional states, such as excitement or deprivation, also originate from within the individual and can significantly impact behavior. Therefore, both external and internal events can exert stimulus control over behavior, highlighting the intricate interaction between the organism and its environment. 155. Give an original example of some form of physical stimulation arising from within the skin. Consider the sensation of itching. Itching is a physical sensation that originates from within the skin due to various factors such as irritation, allergic reactions, or dryness. When the skin's nerve endings are stimulated by these internal factors, it triggers the sensation of itching, prompting the individual to scratch the affected area. This internal stimulation arising from within the skin demonstrates how physiological processes can influence behavior and perception. 156. “A private event may be distinguished by its limited accessibility, but not, so far as we know, by any special structure or nature .” NOTE: Read the first full paragraph on page 258 carefully. In it, Skinner distinguishes between the interests of those interested in practical control exclusively, from those interested in having a more complete approximate understanding or a more complete account of human behavior. This requires a willingness to shift quickly and comfortably between “psychology” and biology without getting hung up about distinctions between one domain of inquiry and another. This is at the heart of radical behaviorism and the distinctions made by methodological and interbehavioral forms of behaviorism. Radical behaviorists regard behavior as a subset of biology.. Other behaviorisms do not accept that and regard it as insulting to subsume their field under another domain. Those who wish to focus only on directly observable organism-environment relations are for practical purposes, committing to methodological behaviorism. This is perfectly fine and completely practical for solving real world applied problems. However, some (myself included) would argue that this is only a partial view of what science provides. You will ultimately need to come to your own conclusion about what is of importance to you. Good luck!! 157. Explain how the verbal community establishes responses that are under the control of private stimuli? The verbal community establishes responses under the control of private stimuli through reinforcement based on observable behaviors accompanying those stimuli, such as crying out or holding the jaw in the case of toothache. This linking of private events with observable behaviors allows the community to indirectly reinforce verbal responses to private stimuli. Additionally, verbal

responses acquired in relation to public events can be transferred to private events based on common properties; for example, subjective terms used to describe emotions are often metaphorical and borrowed from descriptions of observable events. However, these methods are not foolproof, as the correlation between public events and private stimuli may not always be perfect, and the community cannot guarantee the accuracy of the verbal repertoire related to private events, as responses may be transferred based on irrelevant properties. 158. Describe the respondent conceptualization of conditioned seeing. The respondent conceptualization of conditioned seeing illuminates how individuals can perceive stimuli not physically present but linked to past experiences through conditioning. For example, a familiar song can trigger vivid memories or emotions, while the scent of a particular perfume may evoke images of a loved one or a specific location. In literature, descriptive passages can stimulate readers to visualize scenes in their minds, demonstrating the influence of words as conditioned stimuli. Moreover, in virtual reality experiences, individuals immersed in simulated environments can feel as though they are in a different place altogether, highlighting how technology can induce conditioned seeing through sensory cues. These instances illustrate the broad scope of conditioned seeing, extending across various sensory modalities and impacting perception and cognition profoundly. 159. Describe the operant conceptualization of conditioned seeing. The operant conceptualization of conditioned seeing involves how reinforcement and deprivation influence the behavior of "seeing" specific stimuli. For instance, imagine someone is consistently reinforced for finding rare coins. As a result, they might develop behaviors like frequenting places where coins are commonly found, such as antique stores or flea markets, or even scanning the ground wherever they go. This behavior becomes so strong that they may start perceiving coin-like shapes in patterns unrelated to actual coins, like on tiled floors or in random objects. Similarly, consider a birdwatcher who is heavily reinforced for spotting rare bird species. They might engage in behaviors such as visiting specific habitats or using specialized equipment to increase their chances of spotting these birds. Over time, this reinforcement could lead to them perceiving bird-like shapes or movements in the environment, even when no birds are present. These examples illustrate how operant conditioning can influence the behavior of seeing particular objects or stimuli, even in the absence of immediate external cues. NOTE: Skinner reviews both traditional and alternative formulations for understanding private events before he addresses his own behavior analytic perspective. Read these sections if you want but of the utmost importance is that you read the final full paragraph on page 282 in that chapter, under the heading “The private made public”. Nearly every sentence in that paragraph is worth careful attention!!

XVIII THE SELF (p 283) 160. Explain the common, problematic way of conceptualizing the self. The common, problematic way of conceptualizing the self is as a hypothetical cause of action. When behavior occurs without clear external determinants, the tendency is to attribute it to an originating agent within the organism—the "self." This notion stems from a historical practice of personification, where unexplained phenomena are ascribed to human-like entities for resolution of anxiety. However, this conceptualization faces challenges. Firstly, the self is not identical to the physical organism; it is perceived as initiating or directing behavior, distinct from mere physiological processes. Secondly, the observation of inconsistent behavior suggests the presence of multiple selves or personalities within a single organism, sometimes in conflict with each other. This model of multiple selves is not unique to common parlance; it's also seen in psychological frameworks like Freud's, which delineates the id, ego, and superego as distinguishable agents within the psyche, often in tension with one another. However, despite its historical prevalence, this conceptualization raises questions regarding its explanatory power and coherence. 161. How does Skinner attempt to explain the concept of self? Skinner attempts to explain the concept of self by challenging its necessity in understanding behavior. He suggests that a concept of self is not essential in behavioral analysis. Instead, he emphasizes the role of external variables and environmental contingencies in shaping behavior. In Skinner's view, behavior can be understood and predicted solely by studying the relationship between an organism and its environment, without the need for postulating internal entities like the self or personality. Thus, Skinner's approach offers an alternative perspective that focuses on observable behavior and its environmental determinants, rather than on hypothetical inner determiners like the self. 162. Why might self-knowledge be deficient? Self-knowledge can be deficient for a variety of reasons. Firstly, individuals may lack awareness of their own actions or behaviors, even in instances where they have acted energetically but cannot recall or describe what they have done. This can range from minor instances like unnoticed verbal slips to more significant cases like extended amnesias, where large portions of past behavior are inaccessible to the individual. Secondly, individuals may struggle to understand the processes underlying their actions, even when they can report preliminary stages and outcomes. For example, a mathematician may find it challenging to articulate the steps they took to solve a problem, despite achieving a solution. Thirdly, individuals may engage in behaviors without conscious awareness, such as absent-minded conduct or unconscious mannerisms. Additionally, individuals may be unaware of their own inclinations or tendencies, such as aggressive tendencies or predilections, leading to a lack of self-recognition. Lastly, individuals may fail to recognize the factors influencing their behavior, attributing it to one source when it is actually influenced by variables elsewhere in their environment or personal history. These deficiencies in self-knowledge can stem from various cognitive factors, including limitations in introspective abilities, unconscious processes, or biases in perception and interpretation.

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AB539 S&HB Study Guide Unit 4 Ch 15-18 Fall 2013

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