D265 - Practice tests
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Western Governors University *
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D265
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Philosophy
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Feb 20, 2024
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Section # 1
Lesson 1 Quiz: Basic Components of Propositions
Question 1
If the new employee wants to succeed, then they need to show up on time. How many times have we heard the manager complain about tardiness? Nobody likes a 7 a.m. start time, but it was in the job description. We should remind the new employee how important this is.
Which is a simple proposition that is expressed in the above paragraph?
The new employee wants to succeed.
How many times have we heard the manager complain about tardiness?
The employees look out for each other.
If the new employee wants to succeed, then they need to show up on time.
Answer
This is the simple proposition in the "if . . ." half of the first complex proposition.
Question 2
The U.S. healthcare system is difficult to navigate, and this negatively affects many of us. Many people are unsure exactly how their health insurance coverage works and are not sure where they can go to get care. What can be done to improve this? If changes are not made soon, the problem will only get worse.
Which is a simple proposition that is expressed in the above paragraph?
Many people are not sure where they can go to get care.
The U.S. healthcare system is difficult to navigate, and this negatively affects many of us.
What can be done to improve this?
Many people are unsure exactly how their health insurance coverage works and are not sure where they can go to get care.
Answer
This is a simple proposition expressed in the second sentence. Note that when broken down, it needs to explicitly include the subject "many people."
Lesson 2 Quiz: Distinguishing Between Premises and Conclusions
Question 1
Which words or phrases are premise indicators?
Choose 2 answers.
In that
Consequently
It follows that
Because
Answer
"In that" is correct. "In that" indicates the introduction of a reason supporting the conclusion.
"Because" is correct. "Because" indicates the introduction of a reason supporting the conclusion.
Question 2
Which words or phrases are conclusion indicators?
Choose 2 answers.
As a result
For
Hence
As indicated by
Answer
"As a result" is correct. "As a result" indicates the introduction of a claim supported by premises.
"Hence" is correct. "Hence" indicates the introduction of a claim supported by premises.
Lesson 3 Quiz: Distinguishing between Arguments and Non-arguments
Question 1
Which pairs of sentences are arguments?
Choose 2 answers.
1
Every time I walk by here, Chris is doing nothing. Chris must not do anything with the available time.
We need to act now to reverse greenhouse gas emissions. If we do not, the earth will soon become inhospitable to human life.
John Lennon was shot and killed. So were Bobby Kennedy and his brother John.
One student cheated on the test. But it was only because the student felt ill prepared.
Answer
"
Every time I walk by here, Chris is doing nothing. Chris must not do anything with the available time" is correct. The second sentence is the conclusion and the first sentence is the premise.
"We need to act now to reverse greenhouse gas emissions. If we do not, the earth will soon become inhospitable to human life" is correct. The first sentence is the conclusion and the second sentence is the premise.
Question 2
I know who vandalized Riley’s car with spray paint. It was Jordan! Consider the facts. Jordan was seen near Riley’s house yesterday afternoon, and last night we noticed paint on Jordan’s shirt. Besides, Jordan has been out to get Riley ever since Riley broke Jordan’s lawn mower.
Which description best characterizes the above?
A story
An explanation for why something happened
An argument
A disconnected set of statements
Answer
Because the passage contains a conclusion (Jordan vandalized the car) supported by reasons and evidence (paint stain, opportunity, and motive), it is best characterized as an argument.
Lessons 4 Quiz: Validity or Strength of Arguments
Question 1
Consider the following argument: If Jones is a baseball player, then Jones is an athlete. Jones is a baseball player. Thus, Jones is an athlete.
Which kind of argument is this?
A conditional proposition
A valid argument
A strong argument
An invalid argument
Answer
This is correct because the argument is structured in such a way that if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true.
Question 2
In deductive reasoning, what is the difference between validity and soundness?
Validity concerns the truth of an argument's premises, but soundness requires a high degree of probability.
Validity only concerns the structure of an argument, but soundness requires both validity and true premises.
Validity concerns an argument's probability, but soundness requires clearly defined terms.
Validity concerns the inductive strength of an argument, but soundness requires both strength and plausible premises.
Answer
Validity concerns the way an argument is constructed. Soundness requires true premises in addition to validity.
Question 3
2
All Texans are Americans. Ana is an American. Therefore, Ana is a Texan. Which terms categorize this deductive argument?
Choose two answers.
Valid
Invalid
Sound
Unsound
Answer
Correct! This argument is not valid.
Correct! All invalid arguments are also unsound.
Hint: First evaluate the argument's form, then evaluate the argument's content.
Question 4
All Californians are Canadians. Bert is a Californian. Therefore, Bert is a Canadian. Which terms
categorize this deductive argument?
Choose two answers.
Valid
Invalid
Sound
Unsound
Answer
Correct! If the premises of this argument were true, the conclusion would have to be true as well.
Correct! This argument has a valid form, but it is unsound because it contains a false premise.
Hint: First evaluate the argument's form, then evaluate the argument's content.
Question 5
In the past, it has snowed in Alaska every winter for the last 100 years. Therefore, it will probably snow in Alaska next winter. Which terms categorize this inductive argument?
Choose two answers.
Strong
Weak
Cogent
Uncogent
Answer
Correct! The truth of the premise would make the conclusion probably true.
Correct! This argument is strong and its premise is true.
Hint: First evaluate the argument's form, then evaluate the argument's content.
Question 6
In 1962, it snowed in downtown Los Angeles. Therefore, it will probably snow in downtown Los Angeles next winter. Which terms categorize this inductive argument?
Choose two answers.
Strong
Weak
Cogent
Uncogent
Answer
Correct! This argument provides very weak inductive support for the conclusion.
Correct! All weak arguments are also uncogent.
Hint: First evaluate the argument's form, then evaluate the argument's content.
Lessons 5 Quiz: Fallacies
Question 1
Complete the statement:
A formal fallacy concerns _______, but an informal fallacy concern _______.
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Possible responses: Response 1
The structure of an argument
The relation between cause and effect
The official instructions for reasoning that are provided in a logic textbook.
The form of language used in an argument.
Possible responses: Response 2
The rule of deductive logic used in an argument.
The unofficial but acceptable ways to follow those instructions.
The informational content of an argument
The structure of an argument
Answer
By definition, a formal fallacy concerns the structure of an argument, and an informal fallacy concerns the information contained in the argument’s structure.
Question 2
Complete the statement:
A formal fallacy is a type of _______.
Possible Responses
Good structure
Good statement
Bad argument structure
Bad statement
Answer
Formality is associated with structure.
Question 3
If it is the hottest day of the year, then the ice will melt. The ice melted. Therefore, it must have been the hottest day of the year. What fallacy does the above argument commit?
Begging the question
Affirming the consequent
Fallacy fallacy
Denying the antecedent
Answer
The argument commits the fallacy “affirming the consequent.” Arguments of this form can have true premises and a false conclusion.
Hint: Pay close attention to the form of the argument.
Question 4
Jamie’s argument against the conspiracy theorist commits the straw figure fallacy. So, clearly Jamie is wrong, and the conspiracy is real. What logical error does the above argument commit?
Begging the question
Affirming the consequent
Fallacy fallacy
Denying the antecedent
Answer
The conclusion of another argument is rejected on the grounds that the other argument commits a fallacy.
This is a mistake since there are bad arguments for true conclusions.
Hint: Pay close attention to the form of the argument.
Question 5
4
It must be true if she said it. She did not say it. Consequently, it must not be true. What fallacy does the above argument commit?
Begging the question
Affirming the consequent
Fallacy fallacy
Denying the antecedent
Answer
“It must be true if she said it” is equivalent to “If she said it, then it must be true.” Since “she said it” follows
“if,” that simple proposition, which the second premise denies, is the antecedent.
Hint: Note that the relative position of the two parts of a hypothetical statement can be flipped.
Question 6
Frida Kahlo is the greatest artist because no other artist is as good as her. What logical error does the above argument commit?
Begging the question
Affirming the consequent
Fallacy fallacy
Denying the antecedent
Answer
The argument is circular. Its premise merely restates the conclusion.
Hint: Pay close attention to the content of the argument.
Section 1 Test: Evaluating Arguments and Evidence
Question 1
Which sentences reflect strong critical thinking?
Choose 2 answers.
I disagree with my opponent’s position on this issue, but I respect my opponents and I am curious to hear their thoughts on the matter.
I know that issues can be complicated, and that it is often difficult to determine the best approach to a problem.
Unlike some others, I do not jump to conclusions, nor am I biased.
While I am open to discussion on the topic, I am committed to my position because I know it is right.
Answer
Choice A is correct. Strong critical thinkers are intellectually curious, respect others, and are able to separate people from their arguments and positions on issues.
Choice B is correct. Strong critical thinkers understand that issues are often more complicated than they may initially appear, and they are interested in reaching an informed decision.
Question 2
Which sentences are propositions?
Choose 2 answers.
Hey, let’s go to lunch at noon today.
Mangino’s has the best pizza.
They will likely put the other restaurants out of business.
Do you like Mangino’s pizza?
Answer
Choice B is correct. This sentence can be either true or false, thus it is a proposition.
Choice C is correct. This sentence can be either true or false, thus it is a proposition.
Question 3
Which statement is a simple proposition?
Because I was dressed for work, I took an umbrella and ran to my car.
I had a work deadline approaching, so I ate lunch at my desk and finished my work.
5
I stopped at the grocery store and bought some milk.
By noon, the sun was shining.
Answer
This is a simple proposition; it is true or false just based on how the world is.
Question 4
Which indicator is a premise indicator?
Hence
Because
Thus
Therefore
Answer
This is a premise indicator.
Question 5
Because flying cars will relieve traffic congestion, and since the research and development of such vehicles will be expensive, it follows that the government should encourage industry to develop flying cars and banks should help fund industry research.
Which phrases contain conclusions of this argument?
Choose 2 answers.
Flying cars will relieve traffic congestion
The research and development of such vehicles will be expensive
The government should encourage industry to develop flying cars
Banks should help fund industry research
Answer
Choice C is correct. "It follows that" is a conclusion indicator.
Choice D is correct. "It follows that" is a conclusion indicator.
Question 6
Dogs are bred for many different purposes. Poodles, for example, make good house pets, while German shepherds and other large breeds can be used for home protection. Therefore, because it is important to select the right breed for your needs, you should carefully research dog breeds to make the right choice.
Which statement is the conclusion of the argument?
German shepherds and other large breeds can be used for home protection.
Dogs are bred for many different purposes.
You should carefully research dog breeds to make the right choice.
It is important to select the right breed for your needs.
Answer
While the word "therefore" signals a conclusion, in this case, the conclusion does not immediately follow the indicator word, but is interrupted by a clause stating a premise that is signaled by the word "because."
Question 7
Everyone should vote ___________________.
Which phrase would form an argument when added to this sentence?
because it is their duty
for the most honest candidate
in their assigned district
before the deadline
Answer
Arguments are comprised of premises (reasoning) and conclusions; in this case, the word “because” is a premises indicator signaling that reasoning follows.
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Question 8
People have fought for freedom since the beginning of time.
Which descriptor best characterizes this sentence?
Proposition
Inference
Weak argument
Strong argument
Answer
Arguments are comprised of premises (reasoning) supporting a conclusion(s); although the sentence includes the word “since,” which often signals that premises follow. In this case, the word “since” does not
support reasoning but rather references a period, thus the sentence is merely a conclusion or proposition.
Question 9
Jordan says, "I am the best student at our high school; I am the tallest and most athletic, and I have the best car." Taylor, Jordan’s best friend, totally agrees.
Which two descriptors best characterize Jordan’s comments?
Choose two answers.
Weak argument
Proposition
Inference
Strong argument
Answer
Choice A is correct. Arguments are comprised of premises (reasoning) supporting a conclusion(s). In this case, the example seems to include a conclusion ("I am the best student at our high school.") as well as premises ("I am the tallest and most athletic, and I have the best car."), thus satisfying the requirements for an argument. Because the premises do not seem to directly support the conclusion, the argument is weak.
Choice C is correct. All arguments contain inferences, or reasoning, offered in support of the conclusion(s). Arguments are comprised of premises (reasoning) supporting a conclusion(s). In this case, the example seems to include a conclusion ("I am the best student at our high school.") as well as premises ("I am the tallest and most athletic, and I have the best car."), thus satisfying the requirements for an argument.
Question 10
All dogs are cute. Ginger is a dog. Therefore, Ginger is cute.
Which type of reasoning is illustrated in this example?
Deductive
Invalid
Inductive
Abductive
Answer
Deductive arguments are mathematical arguments such as proofs, logical arguments, arguments from definition, and so forth. If the premises are true and the argumentative structure is good, then the conclusion must be true.
Question 11
Usually when the audience comes out of a theater laughing, that means the film was funny. The
audience leaving the theater after this film is laughing. So, the film probably is funny.
Which type of reasoning is illustrated in this example?
Valid
Sound
Inductive
Deductive
7
Answer
Inductive arguments are arguments from analogy, arguments from qualified authority, causal inferences, scientific hypothetical reasoning, extrapolations from samples, and so on. Even if the argumentative structure is great, the truth of the premises only makes the conclusion probably true at best.
Question 12
All dogs can fly. Ginger is a dog. Therefore, Ginger can fly.
Which types of reasoning are illustrated in this example?
Choose 2 answers.
Deductive
Valid
True
Sound
Answer
Choice A is correct. This is a deductive argument. Deductive arguments are mathematical arguments such as proofs, logical arguments, arguments from definition, and so forth. If the premises are true and the argumentative structure is good, then the conclusion must be true.
Choice B is correct. This is a valid deductive argument. Deductive argumentative structures are either valid or invalid. A deductive argument is considered invalid if, assuming that all of the premises are true, it
is still possible for the conclusion to be false due to the structure of the argument.
Question 13
An individual drops hundreds of objects, and each time they fall to the ground. The individual therefore concludes that if someone drops a pencil, it will fall.
Which terms describe the argument?
Choose 2 answers.
Deductive
Valid
Strong
Cogent
Answer
Choice C is correct. Truth refers to the premises (reasoning) in an inductive argument, and this reason may be weak or strong. The premises in the example provided (that because each time hundreds of other
objects have been dropped, they have fallen, the pencil will likewise fall when dropped) is strong.
Choice D is correct. "Cogent" and "uncogent" are terms used in place of "sound" and "unsound" for inductive arguments, since inductive arguments cannot be sound or unsound. Cogent, therefore, means that all of the premises in an inductive argument are true, and also that the premises give strong inductive
support for the conclusion, as is the case in the example provided.
Question 14
If I am bald, then I am old. I am old. Therefore, I am bald.
Which type of logic error is this an example of?
Begging the question
The fallacy fallacy
Denying the antecedent
Affirming the consequent
Answer
The example illustrates the formal fallacy of affirming the consequent. Note that the second premise ("I am old") affirms the consequent in the first premise (the part of the first premise that typically follows "then," in this case "I am old"). Because the conclusion in the example may be false even if the premises are true, the argument structure in the example is a bad deductive structure.
Question 15
If I am a soldier, then I am brave. I am not a soldier. Therefore, I am not brave.
Which type of logic error is this an example of?
Affirming the consequent
8
Denying the antecedent
Begging the question
The fallacy fallacy
Answer
The example illustrates the formal fallacy of denying the antecedent. Note that the second premise ("I am not a soldier") denies the antecedent in the first premise (the part of the first premise that typically follows “if”; in this case, "I am a soldier"). This argument structure is not good because the conclusion may not be
true, even though the premises are true.
Question 16
It is wrong to cheat on a test since cheating on a test is morally bad.
Which type of logic error is this an example of?
Affirming the consequent
Denying the antecedent
Begging the question
The fallacy fallacy
Answer
The informal fallacy of begging the question, sometimes called circular reasoning, occurs when an argument’s premises assume the truth of the conclusion. In the example provided, the premise (reasoning) that cheating is wrong assumes the truth of the conclusion that one should never cheat on a test. This is problematic because the premises (reasoning) fails to provide an independent reason for accepting the conclusion.
Question 17
My opponent argues that the earth is round because Dr. Evil shaped it that way using his satellite mounted laser. Since Dr. Evil is a fictitious character, you must reject the argument that the earth is round.
This is an example of which type of logic error?
Denying the antecedent
Affirming the consequent
Begging the question
The fallacy fallacy
Answer
The informal logic error known as the fallacy fallacy occurs when one assumes that if an argument contains a logical fallacy, then its conclusion must necessarily be wrong, regardless of whether that is the case.
Section # 2
Lesson 1 Quiz: Information Sources
Question 1
Which study is most likely to be corrupted by bias?
A study by the marketing department of an oil company determining the best use of the company's advertising dollars
A study by a group representing organic farmers examining the health benefits of eating organic
foods
A study by an independent research group detailing the effects of global warming
A study by a nonpartisan polling firm showing strong support for a new tax levy
Answer
Organic farmers have a financial incentive to spread the view that their foods are healthy.
Question 2
Which questions can best help readers avoid being misled by fake news?
Choose 2 answers.
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Has the story been vetted by independent fact-checkers?
Does the story support your political views?
Has the subject of a negative story dismissed it as fake news?
Are multiple news outlets independently reporting the same story?
Answer
"Has the story been vetted by independent fact-checkers?" is correct. If a story is verified by independent fact-checkers, it is more likely to be true.
"Are multiple news outlets independently reporting the same story?" is correct. If independent sources report the same story, it is more likely to be true.
Section 2 Test: Evaluating Arguments and Evidence: Source Credibility
Question 1
Which piece of information would be the most helpful to know in assessing the credibility of a news story?
Whether the political party affiliation of the author is identified
Whether the article contains video footage
Whether the name of the author and the publication are identified
Whether there is widespread agreement with the story on social media
Answer
The name of the author and the publication are vital to assessing the credibility of the source; with this information, one can and should research the legitimacy of the source and assess the source for bias.
Question 2
While researching a topic on the internet, a student encounters two different websites, one of that looks more official than the other and includes tables, charts, and statistics, while the other does not.
What is the line of reasoning this student should employ to determine which site is more credible?
Neither site is credible, unless one of the two is truly an official government website run by a government agency.
The site that looks more official with tables, charts, and statistics is more credible because it reflects professionalism and objectivity.
It is not feasible to determine which site is more credible from the information provided.
The site that looks less official and does not include tables, charts, and statistics is more credible because it is more straightforward and objective.
Answer
While people often assess a source’s credibility based on the appearance of its website, this is not an effective strategy; one must research the sources, information, and motivations behind a site to determine
its credibility.
Question 3
In which way should an information source be approached if it is stating that it is the only source
of real information and that other sources cannot be trusted?
Confidently, because the source likely has exclusive information.
Skeptically, because the source may lack credibility.
Confidently, because the source is concerned with telling the true story.
Skeptically, because the source reflects a formal fallacy.
Answer
An information source that purports to be the only source of “real” information or encourages you to distrust all other sources (or does both) is suspect and likely lacks credibility.
Lesson 1 Quiz: Confirmation Bias
Question 1
Which passage best demonstrates the principle of charity?
Shae said, "It seems that the earth is flat." Shae must mean that the earth looks flat to observers on the ground even though our planet really is round.
Morgan said, "The new tax levy to support local schools is too expensive." Morgan must think education is unimportant.
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Reese said, "The oil industry has contributed to climate change." Reese must believe the oil industry is responsible for every natural disaster that occurs.
Campbell said, "People convicted of theft should not automatically receive harsh prison sentences." Campbell must mean that people who steal should never be punished.
Answer
Instead of assuming Shae is making the demonstrably false claim that the earth actually is flat, Shae’s claim is interpreted in a way that makes it not only defensible but true.
Question 2
Consider the following scenario:
Smith is committed to the belief that technological advancement is always beneficial and thus never detrimental to human life. Smith reads a carefully written and sufficiently argued essay in which the author contends that the human adoption of any new technology involves both advantages and disadvantages to its adopters. Since Smith is a loyal technophile, Smith accepts the author's claims about the advantages of technology but rejects the author's claims about the disadvantages of technology.
Which cognitive bias is Smith demonstrating?
Dunning-Kruger effect
Principle of charity
Optimism bias
Confirmation bias
Answer
This is a textbook example of the confirmation bias. Smith's commitment to technology inclines Smith to accept all forms of support for the adoption of technology and to reject all arguments or warnings against technology.
Lesson 2 Quiz: Cognitive Bias
Question 1
Which of the following is a form of cognitive bias?
The false dilemma fallacy
The Peter Principle
Begging the question
Alief
Answer
This is a cognitive bias. The alief bias is a general attitude that one is inclined to have which may conflict with one’s actual beliefs and items of knowledge.
Question 2
Which of the following is most likely to be most impacted by cognitive bias?
A social media post from a nonexpert concerning a controversial topic.
A peer-reviewed academic journal
A newspaper article about a recent baseball game
A history textbook written by a reputable historian.
Answer
Social media posts from nonexperts on controversial topics are commonly impacted by cognitive biases.
Question 3
A high school geology teacher asks her class whether Mount Everest is taller than 8,000 feet. Most students guess that it is. Then the teacher offers extra credit for correctly guessing the actual height of the mountain. Answers range from 6,000 feet to 16,000 feet, but nobody comes close to the actual height of Mount Everest (which is 29,000 feet). What cognitive bias explains why students’ guesses are around 8,000 feet?
Representativeness
Selection bias
Anchoring
Alief
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Answer
“8,000 feet” is a mental anchor from which the students adjust.
Hint: 8,000 feet is the first information the teacher gives related to the mountain’s height.
Lesson 3 Quiz: Statistical Generalization
Question 1
Which of the following is the most relevant question to ask when seeking to identify an unwarranted statistical generalization?
Does the generalization follow at least one rule of deductive logic?
Does the generalization confirm what you already believe?
Is the generalization consistent with popular beliefs in your society?
Is the generalization based on a sufficient number of relevant samples?
Answer
By definition, an unwarranted statistical generalization is flawed because the sample size is insufficiently large or representative.
Question 2
The Bright Tooth toothpaste company runs the following advertisement: "Use Bright Tooth toothpaste. Nine out of ten dentists recommend it!" You decide to research this claim. You discover that the Bright Tooth toothpaste company surveyed only ten carefully selected dentists,
nine of whom expressed support for Bright Tooth toothpaste. You also learn that, as of 2019, there were 200,419 dentists in the United States alone. Which error is committed in the advertisement?
Selection bias
Thinking Slow
Selective attention
Unfair stereotype
Answer
Selection bias occurs when a sample is selected in such a way that it is not representative of the target population.
Lesson 4 Quiz: Bias, Reasoning, Decision-making
Question 1
When asked how likely it is for an urban cyclist to get in an accident, a survey respondent remembered that their friend got into a cycling accident last week. This makes them conclude that cycling accidents are fairly likely.
Which statement is correct about the source of bias in the passage and how to avoid its impact?
This is availability bias. It is best avoided by carefully considering whether the examples that come to mind are truly representative of the world at large.
This is confirmation bias. It is best avoided by seeking out the best arguments for alternative viewpoints.
This is availability bias. It is best avoided by going with one's instincts and avoiding too much deliberation.
This is confirmation bias. It is best avoided by staying fixed in one's beliefs and not allowing outside influences to change one's views.
Answer
The respondent based their response on the example that came easily to mind, which is availability bias. Considering whether the examples that come to mind are representative of the world at large is the best way to avoid its impact.
Question 2
Which statement about how to respond to bias is correct?
Different forms of bias are best responded to in different ways, depending on how they impact a person.
Since humans are bound to be influenced by bias in everything they do, there is no point in trying to respond to bias.
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Humans are not influenced by bias.
All different forms of bias can be responded to in the same way: by putting extra weight on any conclusion that does not seem immediately plausible.
Answer
Attention to how a form of bias impacts a person can help to determine how best to reduce that impact.
Section 3 Test: Identifying Bias and its Impact.
Question 1
Politician A proposes new tax cuts for large corporations. Initially Politician B opposes these tax cuts. However, instead of quickly dismissing the proposal as a mere favor to powerful interests, Politician B first considers the strongest available evidence for the argument that Politician A's proposal could create new jobs and stimulate the economy.
Which argumentation concept does this passage illustrate?
Confirmation bias
The principle of charity
Availability
Heuristics
Answer
The passage illustrates the principle of charity, which holds that one should interpret opponents’ arguments in the strongest, most favorable light to best understand and address issues.
Question 2
An individual does not believe the moon landing ever occurred. She claims there are plenty of internet postings that agree with this idea, and while photos, documentation, witness accounts, and physical evidence of a moon landing may exist, these are all things that can easily be manufactured by the government, which cannot be trusted.
Which argumentation concept does this passage illustrate?
Anchoring and adjustment
Confirmation bias
Denying the antecedent
Representativeness
Answer
Confirmation bias refers to the natural tendency to minimize or ignore evidence contrary to one’s beliefs, while seeking out and relying on evidence that supports one’s beliefs.
Question 3
Which error may the principle of charity help minimize?
Representativeness
Confirmation bias
Denying the antecedent
Anchoring and adjustment
Answer
Confirmation bias refers to the natural tendency to minimize or ignore evidence contrary to one’s beliefs, while seeking out and relying on evidence that supports one’s beliefs.
Question 4
Which two errors represent cognitive biases?
Choose 2 answers.
Representativeness
Cogency
Validity
Availability
Answer
Correct. The bias of representativeness occurs when one is experiencing a new situation and responds by applying the closest mental prototype in one's experience to interpret the new situation.
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Correct. The bias of availability occurs when one interprets a new situation using information readily available without considering additional information or evidence that may affect the situation.
Question 5
Which two statements are true with respect to heuristics?
Choose 2 answers.
They are problematic because they represent formal logic fallacies.
They are problematic because they can lead to cognitive biases.
They are helpful because they enable fast, efficient decisions.
They are problematic because they lack validity.
Answer
Correct. Heuristics, mental shortcuts or general rules, often lead to cognitive biases, which represent errors in perception and thinking resulting from an individual’s subjective interpretation of reality.
Correct. Heuristics, mental shortcuts or general rules, allow us to make quick decisions when we lack the time, resources, or motivation to conduct a more objective, thorough examination of relevant evidence.
Question 6
Which action can simply be taken in many instances to gain a clearer, more accurate understanding of a situation?
Checking social media
Affirming the consequent
Narrowing the topic
Broadening our perspective
Answer
Looking at a situation in isolation, sometimes called “narrow framing,” can lead to poor decision-making.
Question 7
Critical thinkers are constantly alert for possible biases in their own thinking.
When the potential for bias is present, which two actions may strong critical thinkers take to help
minimize bias in their thinking?
Choose 2 answers.
Employ heuristics for decision-making.
Look for consensus on social media.
Broaden their sources of information.
Slow their thought process.
Answer
Correct. Broadening information sources can help minimize the natural tendency to rely on the first information encountered in a given situation (anchoring).
Correct. Deliberately slowing one’s thought process and employing a more analytical, reflective approach may help minimize the natural tendency to jump to conclusions using heuristics, or mental general rules, that may or may not apply to particular situations.
Question 8
Elliott notices that many of the news articles, blogs, social media postings, and other information
she sees on the internet support her view on a particular issue.
Based on this information, what can Elliott reasonably conclude with respect to their view on the
issue?
Most people likely agree with Elliott’s view.
Elliott’s view is most likely incorrect.
Elliott’s view is most likely correct.
Algorithms may be linking Elliott with like-minded information.
Answer
Internet algorithms often create information "bubbles" that artificially reinforce and amplify one’s personal subjective impressions of the world, regardless of the objective legitimacy of such impressions; thus, Elliott cannot reach any of the listed conclusions from such sources alone.
Question 9
14
An anonymous survey is conducted to determine what percentage of the population of married couples lies to their spouse, so the following survey question is formulated: "I don’t lie to my spouse because that would be wrong," and participants are asked to select "true" or "false."
Which statement is true with respect to this study question?
Not good, because the question may lead participants to answer in a certain way.
Not good, because it fails to consider the participant’s motives.
Good, because it addresses the central issue in the study.
Good, because the study is anonymous.
Answer
The question should be worded neutrally, perhaps by dropping the reference to wrongdoing, to minimize the risk that respondents will offer the answer they believe to be the most socially acceptable, even in an anonymous study.
Question 10
A report concludes that people who drive red cars get more speeding tickets than people who drive other color cars. Based on this report, an individual concludes that red cars encourage people to drive fast.
Which concept does this conclusion illustrate?
The principle of charity
Anchoring
Selection bias
Representativeness
Answer
Selection bias occurs when the sample from which it is generalized is not representative of the general population. In the example given, it is possible that people who tend to drive fast also tend to purchase red cars.
Question 11
To understand how people in a county feel about a proposed increase in property taxes, a person walks door-to-door in his neighborhood, asking people to complete a survey. Which two statements are true with regard to this statistical sample?
Choose 2 answers.
Not good because it lacks validity
Good because it is sound
Not good because it is not representative
Not good because it is not random
Answer
Correct. An appropriate sample must be both random and representative. The sample is not representative of the population of the county because it focuses on only one neighborhood.
Correct. An appropriate sample must be both random and representative. The sample is not a random sample of county residents because it focuses on only one neighborhood.
Question 12
A young person is wearing a tie-dyed shirt and driving a Volkswagen (VW) bus. Based on this, another individual concludes that this person has liberal political views.
Which bias does this reasoning reflect?
Availability bias
Anchoring and adjustment bias
Confirmation bias
Representativeness bias
Answer
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The bias of representativeness occurs when one is experiencing a new situation and responds by applying the closest mental prototype in one's experience to interpret the new situation.
Question 13
Casey is a vegetarian who enjoys plant-based foods that taste like real meat. However, Casey will not eat vegetarian products if they look like meat. Even though he knows they do not contain
animal protein and would taste good, Casey is disgusted by their meat-like appearance. What cognitive bias explains why Casey is disgusted by vegetarian foods that look like meat?
Alief
Anchoring
Confirmation Bias
Representativeness
Answer
Casey has an instinctive belief-like attitude toward things that look like meat that conflicts with his reasoned-out beliefs.
Knowledge Check: Fallacies of Relevance
Question 1
Two politicians are engaged in a debate about healthcare. The first politician claims that human beings have a right to access healthcare. The second politician responds that this claim is unclear. He asks, "What do you mean by 'right' and 'access'?" The first politician responds by claiming that voters support accessible healthcare.
Which fallacy is the first politician committing?
The false dilemma fallacy
The red herring fallacy
The equivocation fallacy
The ad hominem fallacy
Answer
The first politician claimed that access to healthcare is a right. The second politician fairly asked for clarification. The first politician then changed the subject by making a claim about what voters support.
Question 2
My nutritionist said that “a vegetarian diet can be healthy.” However, it is absurd to say that we can live on lettuce and carrots alone. We are not rabbits. Humans need protein.
Which fallacy of relevance does the above argument commit?
Red herring
Ad hominem
Straw person
Appeal to authority
Answer
The arguer replaces the nutritionist’s actual position with the different and far less plausible “straw” claim that humans should eat only lettuce and carrots.
Question 3
It is okay to cheat on my taxes. Everyone else does it, so why shouldn’t I?
Which irrelevant appeal does the above argument commit?
Appeal to consequences
Appeal to authority
Appeal to popularity
Appeal to force
Answer
The arguer appeals to the alleged popularity of a practice to justify it.
Lesson 1 Fallacies of Relevance
16
Question 1
Which of the following is a fallacy of relevance?
The fallacy of hasty generalization
The fallacy of shifting the burden of proof
The fallacy of anthropomorphism
The genetic fallacy
Answer
The genetic fallacy is a fallacy of relevance because it involves the mistake of drawing a conclusion based on information that is not relevant to the conclusion.
Question 2
A pen is a writing utensil. Sometimes, animals are kept in a pen. Thus, sometimes, animals are kept in a writing utensil.
What fallacy is found in this argument?
The fallacy of equivocation
The fallacy of begging the question
The fallacy of sweeping generalization
The appeal to popularity fallacy
Answer
This fallacy occurs when a term is used in more than one sense in an argument. In other words, the fallacy involves ambiguity.
Lesson 2 – Fallacies of Weak Induction
Question 1
Conner and Miller are discussing the topic of intelligent life in other solar systems. Conner asks Miller, "Do you believe that there is intelligent life in the Alpha Centauri planetary system?" Miller
replies, "I don't know that there isn't intelligent life there. There's no proof that there isn't. So, I believe there is intelligent life in that planetary system."
Which fallacy did Miller commit?
The false dilemma fallacy
The fallacy of appeal to ignorance
The fallacy of begging the question
The fallacy of appeal to the people
Answer
This is a clear example of the appeal to ignorance fallacy. This fallacy occurs when one takes ignorance about a subject as evidence for a conclusion about that subject.
Question 2
Suppose Jones believes that every morning that he steps out of his house with his right foot first, he will have a good day. Jones believes this because last Tuesday morning he stepped out
of his house with his right foot first. Later in the day, he received a raise at work, his friends took
him to lunch, and he won $500 in the lottery.
Which fallacy did Jones commit?
The fallacy of appeal to emotion
The fallacy of wishful thinking
The fallacy of post hoc ergo propter hoc
The false dilemma fallacy
Answer
This fallacy occurs when one confuses proximity in time with causation.
Question 2
17
What fallacy occurs when a person reasons that one event is likely to lead to another event due to a chain of intermediary events, even though the probability of that entire chain being realized is low?
The slippery slope fallacy
The fallacy of ad hominem
The fallacy of avoiding the issue
The bandwagon fallacy
Answer
This is a description of the slippery slope fallacy.
Lesson 3 – Fallacies of Presumptions
Question 1
Which of the following is the most pertinent question to ask when trying to identify the fallacy of begging the question?
Are the premises known to be true?
Is the argument relevant to the topic of the debate?
Are any of the premises of the argument identical to the conclusion of the argument?
Is the conclusion known to be true?
Answer
The question-begging fallacy occurs when a person supports a conclusion with a premise that is identical to the conclusion. As such, the conclusion is not supported, but merely assumed to be true. Therefore, it is relevant to ask this question to identify the question-begging fallacy.
Question 2
Suppose a person argues that one and only one of two options is true. However, there are more
than two options. In other words, the argument looks like this:
Either p is true or q is true.
Q is not true.
Therefore, p is true.
However, there is a third option, r.
Which of the following fallacies is present in this argument?
The fallacy of cherry-picking the evidence
The fallacy of shifting the burden of proof
The fallacy of circular reasoning
The false dilemma fallacy
Answer
This fallacy occurs when a person assumes that only two options are available for consideration, when in fact there are more than two. It is important to note that the argument in the example is not fallacious if premises (1) and (2) are in fact true.
Question 3
Suppose that Smith asserts a claim that could be true but seems implausible. Jones recognizes this point and asks Smith to provide evidence for his claim. Smith responds: "Why don't you try to disprove my claim?"
Which fallacy is found in this argument?
The fallacy of shifting the burden of proof
The fallacy of oversimplification
The fallacy of selective attention
The red herring fallacy
Answer
If the person tries to avoid the responsibility of shouldering the burden of proof by shifting that burden onto someone else, then the person is shirking an intellectual duty.
Lesson 4 Conjoint vs Independent Support
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Question 1
In which argument do premises (1) and (2) provide conjoint support for conclusion (3)?
(1) Broccoli is high in important nutrients like vitamin C. (2) Broccoli also has antioxidants that prevent cell damage. (3) I told you that broccoli was healthy!
(1)
If we fix our car, we will not have enough money for a vacation. (2) I guess we just must fix our car, though. (3) Therefore, we will not have enough money for a vacation.
(1) The Titanic famously capsized in 1912, even though people thought it was very safe. (2) There have been high-profile passenger plane crashes around the world. (3) Clearly traveling is not without some risk.
(1) The new candidate has significant experience in the field. (2) Furthermore, they were recommended by someone I trust. (3) I think we should hire them.
Answer
The two premises rely on each other to provide support for the conclusion, so this is conjoint support.
Lesson 4.3 - Terminology
Question 1
Which statement correctly identifies the subpremise, the main premise, and the main conclusion
in the following argument?
(1)The elementary school should run more earthquake drills next year. (2) We have reason to believe that the likelihood of an earthquake is increasing because (3) a federal report released last year said that our area's earthquake danger is on the rise.
1 is the main premise, 2 is the subpremise, and 3 is the main conclusion.
1 is the main premise, 2 is the main conclusion, and 3 is the subpremise.
1 is the main conclusion, 2 is the main premise, and 3 is the subpremise.
1 is the subpremise, 2 is the main premise, and 3 is the main conclusion.
Answer
(1) is the main conclusion, and it is supported by (2), which is in turn supported by (3).
Lesson 4
Question 1
Review the argument mapping and identify the correct option.
Argument:
(1) We have been out in the sun all day. (2) It is unhealthy to spend a lot of time in the sun, so (3) we should go inside.
Option
Argument Mapping
Option A
19
Option B
Option C
Option D
Question 1
Option A
Option B
Option C
Option D
Answer
20
Premises (1) and (2) provide conjoint support for conclusion (3).
Question 2
Argument:
(1) This recent economic report is from a reliable source. (2) We should believe it when the report says that people are going to be retiring at younger ages in the future. (3) If you
retire younger, you need to save more money. (4) This means that you should start putting away more money for retirement.
Option
Argument Mapping
Option A
Option B
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Option C
Option D
Question 2
Option A
Option B
Option C
Option D
Answer
Premise (1) provides reason to believe premise (2), and then premises (2) and (3) provide conjoint support for the conclusion (4).
Question 3
Option
Argument Mapping
Option A
Option B
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Option C
Option D
Question 3
1. Everyone loves fruit.
2. Emma loves bananas.
3. Mario loves apples.
4. Tyler loves bananas.
What is the map for this argument?
Option A
Option B
Option C
Option D
Answer
This is the mapping for independent support.
Question 4
Option
Argument Mapping
Option A
Option B
Option C
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Option D
Question 4
1) Student 1 fails the math test.
2) Student 2 fails the math test.
3) Student 3 fails the math test.
4) The math test is hard.
Which argument map shows this scenario is an example of mapping independent support?
Option A
Option B
Option C
Option D
Answer
This map is correct since each premise (1-3) has a reason to independently support the conclusion (4).
Lesson 5.1
Question
We should buy an electric car. Granted, they are more expensive up front than gas cars, but we have the money, and we will save on gas in the long run. Additionally, electric cars are better for
the environment. And they are becoming more stylish!
Which is a hidden assumption of the given argument?
If something is better for the environment, then that counts in favor of choosing it.
Gas cars will continue to become cheaper in the future as they lose popularity.
Electric cars' batteries do not have any negative consequences for the environment.
We do not have enough money for an electric car because we spent all our money on a vacation this year.
Answer
To make the inference from "they are better for the environment" to "we should buy one," they must assume that being better for the environment is a reason to buy something.
Lesson 5.2
Question
Which argument would require a conjoint, hidden assumption to be paired with premise (1) when mapped?
(1) We can either eat out at a restaurant or stay in. (2) We should not stay in. (3) So we should go out to a restaurant.
(1) If it had rained last night, the sidewalk would still be wet. (2) But the sidewalk is dry. (3) So it must not have rained last night.
(1) Out of all the movies we could watch tonight, Movie A is the funniest. (2) Therefore, we should watch Movie A.
(1) If we want to support a reasonable tax plan, we should vote for Candidate A. (2) We do want
to support a reasonable tax plan. (3) So we should vote for Candidate A.
Answer
The hidden assumption "we should watch the funniest movie" is required to support the conclusion (2).
Lesson 5 Quiz
Question 1
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Map the given argument to help you understand its structure. Then, select which is a hidden assumption of the argument.
(1) We really should be giving more foreign aid to developing nations. (2) It is desirable for the people of the world to have a more equal access to resources, and (3) our nation has more resources than developing nations do. (4) Foreign aid will help give them more equal access to resources. Additionally, (5) there will be more international trade in the future once those nations
are further developed, and (6) foreign aid will help them further develop.
In the past, international trade was not necessarily beneficial to developed nations.
We should give more foreign aid to developing nations.
Generosity is a virtue.
It would be a good thing to increase international trade.
Answer
Premises (5) and (6) together show that foreign aid will increase trade, but the assumption that trade is good is necessary to conclude (1).
Question 2
Map the given argument to help you understand its structure. Then, select which is a hidden assumption of the argument.
(1) Over 70% of residents say that traffic congestion is a major problem in our city. (2) The research group that conducted that survey has a great track record, by the way. (3) And other nearby cities that have invested in transportation have seen significant economic benefits. (4) This all shows that it would be a good idea for our city to invest in transportation.
Other nearby cities spent significant sums to build subway systems.
Residents' levels of concern regarding transportation are higher than their concern regarding education, public safety, or public recreation.
If other nearby cities benefited economically from investing in transportation, our city is likely to benefit as well.
The research group has a perfect track record on surveys regarding economic issues in particular.
Answer
In order for premise (3) to support conclusion (4), it is necessary to assume that the nearby cities' situations are analogous to the speakers.
Question 3
“Al will certainly pass his calculus class. After all, he did well in his algebra class.”
Identify the hidden assumption that would best complete this argument.
Al will pass his calculus class.
Al did well in his algebra class.
Calculus classes teach the exact same material as algebra classes.
If someone does well in algebra, then they will do well in calculus.
Answer
This assumption and the stated premise together provide conjoint support for the conclusion.
Question 4
“That restaurant served me a great lasagna. Therefore, they will probably serve a good hamburger.”
Identify the hidden assumption that would best complete this argument.
If a restaurant makes one dish well, they are likely to make other dishes well.
The restaurant makes good hamburgers.
The chefs at the restaurant are world-class experts in all forms of cooking.
I am hungry.
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Answer
This assumption and the stated premise together provide conjoint support for the conclusion.
Section 4
Question 1
A military veteran is engaged in a heated debate about national security with a reporter who has
never served in the military.
Which response best enables the veteran to undermine the reporter’s argument?
Pointing out that the premise of the reporter’s argument is flawed
Pointing out the reporter’s well-known reputation for taking faulty positions
Pointing out the reporter’s affiliation with news networks that are known to have a political slant to their coverage
Pointing out that the reporter has never served in the military
Answer
Pointing out a flawed premise would undermine the soundness or cogency of an argument.
Question 2
In a political science debate, Student A says she supports raising the national minimum wage to
$15 an hour. Student B disagrees with Student A’s position.
Which response from Student B is a red herring fallacy?
Student B stating her concern about international policy
Student B stating the $15 rate would not help to lift poor families above the poverty line
Student B stating businesses cannot offset the hourly wage increase by raising the cost of goods and services
Student B stating Student A does not have a background in economics
Answer
A red herring fallacy is a fallacy of relevance because the arguer is attacking an irrelevant argument. The argument here is relevant to the topic.
Question 3
Reese’s partner was unfaithful, and this led to the end of their relationship; Reese has decided to avoid relationships because people cannot be trusted.
Which fallacy of weak induction is exemplified in this argument?
Slippery slope
Hasty generalization
Equivocation
Appeal to ignorance
Answer
A hasty generalization occurs when one generalizes about a group of people or things or events, but one does so too quickly and without enough evidence or with too small of a sample.
Question 4
Which two statements depict the fallacy of presumption called begging the question?
Choose 2 answers.
The universe could not have been created from nothing, so it must have been created by the big
bang.
People who lack humility have no sense of beauty, because everyone who has a sense of beauty also has humility.
Real estate is the best investment because every other type of investment is inferior.
Washington DC is the capital city of the United States of America.
Answer
Begging the question occurs when one (either explicitly or implicitly) assumes the truth of the conclusion in one or more of the premises.
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Begging the question is a kind of circular reasoning. In essence, the premise and the conclusion are the same, only worded differently.
Question 5
There is a conversation in which a woman expresses disappointment with her friend for not picking her up at the airport. In response, the friend says, "Well, you never returned the wheelbarrow I let you borrow."
Which response best matches this fallacy of relevance?
Red herring
False cause
Genetic fallacy
Straw figure
Answer
Red herring is a logical fallacy that occurs when someone deliberately tries to derail the discussion from the relevant issue to a different one.
Question 6
"A recent study found that dairy milk is healthier than soy milk. But that finding is obviously false because the study was conducted by the dairy industry."
Which fallacy of relevance is depicted in this example?
Post hoc ergo propter hoc
Appeal to popularity
Begging the question
Genetic fallacy
Answer
The genetic fallacy occurs when an arguer critiques the origin of a claim or argument rather than the claim
or argument itself.
Question 7
Aircraft and ships have gone missing all over the planet under unknown circumstances, but a number of these disappearances have occurred in an area of the North Atlantic Ocean known as the Bermuda Triangle. So the claim that the Bermuda Triangle is haunted must be true.
Which fallacy of weak induction best describes this argument?
Burden of proof shifting
Slippery slope
Appeal to ignorance
Texas sharpshooter
Answer
The Texas sharpshooter fallacy is an informal fallacy that is committed when similarities in data are overemphasized.
Question 8
"If you are not at the game rooting for our high school football team, then you must not have any
school spirit."
Which two statements accurately describe this argument?
Choose 2 answers.
The argument includes a false dichotomy.
The argument assumes the truth of the conclusion in the premise.
The argument contains black-and-white thinking.
The argument mistakes causation for correlation.
Answer
Correct. A false dichotomy falsely assumes that there are only two options in the given situation.
Correct. The argument assumes that either someone roots for the team at the game or they have no school spirit.
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Question 9
Which statement is the burden of proof fallacy?
A mother tells her child it is time to go to bed, and when the child asks why, the mother responds, “Because I said so.”
Proponents of sex education want to give kids license to have sex with no consequences.
A hiker claims that Big Foot is real. When asked for evidence of Big Foot’s existence, the hiker replies, ‘prove Big Foot is not real.
“Since you have not been able to prove you did not steal the bicycle, I will assume you are guilty.”
Answer
A burden of proof fallacy is a logical fallacy that occurs when one attempts to shift the burden of proof to someone else.
Question 10
Since I received high marks in the course, I conclude that Professor Murdock is a good teacher.
What is the unstated assumption in this argument?
Students like and respect Mrs. Murdock.
Mrs. Murdock’s class is lacking in educational rigor.
Students who do homework and study for exams get good grades.
A teacher is good if the teacher gives good grades.
Answer
This argument makes a cause-effect assumption linking good teaching techniques with high grades.
Question 11
Review the argument mapping and identify the correct option.
Argument:
(1) We have a long way to drive, and (2) the traffic is bad today. (3) So we will have to leave early.
Option
Argument Mapping
Option A
Option B
Option C
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Option D
Question 11
1/1 point (ungraded)
Which argument map accurately represents the given argument?
Option A
Option B
Option C
Option D
Answer
Premises (1) and (2) provide independent support for conclusion (3).
Question 12
Review the argument mapping and identify the correct option.
Argument:
(1) The statistics from the last game show that Shiloh scored most goals. (2) so Shiloh did score the most goals, and (3) the player who scored the most goals is the most valuable player. (4) Thus, Shilo is the most valuable player.
Option
Argument Mapping
Option A
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Option B
Option C
Option D
Question 12
Option A
Option B
Option C
Option D
Answer
Premise (1) provides reason to believe premise (2), and then premises (2) and (3) provide conjoint support for the conclusion (4).
Question 13
Review the argument mapping and identify the correct option.
Argument:
(1) If the dog is itching and scratching, then the dog has fleas. (2) The dog is itching and scratching, (3) So the dog has fleas.
Option
Argument Mapping
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Option A
Option B
Option C
Option D
Which argument map accurately represents the given argument?
Option A
Option B
Option C
Option D
Answer
Premises (1) and (2) provide conjoint support for conclusion (3).
Question 14
Review the argument mapping and identify the correct option.
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Argument:
(1) Unless it is not supposed to rain today, we should carry an umbrella. (2) But it is supposed to rain today. (3) Consequently, we should carry an umbrella.
Option
Argument Mapping
Option A
Option B
Option C
Option D
Which argument map accurately represents the given argument?
Option A
Option B
Option C
Option D
Answer
Premises (1) and (2) provide conjoint support for conclusion (3).
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Question 15
Argument:
(1) We are all very hungry, and (2) it is lunch time. (3) So we should get some food.
Option
Argument Mapping
Option A
Option B
Option C
Option D
Which argument map accurately represents the given argument?
Option A
Option B
Option C
Option D
Answer
Premises (1) and (2) provide independent support for conclusion (3).
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