Unit Activity 6-10 (Indian Act Impact on Indigenous Women and Métis in Canada)

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1 Department of Indigenous Studies INDG-1220 -Indigenous People in Canada, Part 1

2 This essay will examine the impacts of the Indian Act of 1876 on the lives and identities of Indigenous women and Métis in Canada. The Indian Act is a colonial legislation that discriminated against Indigenous women and their descendants. Unit 6 will Catalogue the sexist provisions outlined in the Indian Act according to Lawrence (2003). It will also identify the implications of the Indian Act divisions of "Indians" and Metis. In unit 7, this essay discusses the issues of how Métis women were spoken about in the historical record until the 1980s. It also addresses how Métis scholars addressed these issues through various methodologies. In addition, it explains the importance of Stories in Métis ways of being and knowing, according to Campbell, Scofield, and Chartrand. This essay outlined what the graphic novel story tells about Métis women in the 1800s. Unit 8 discusses the treaties and scrip that has been embarked by the Government of Canada many years ago. Unit 9 analyzes the organization of the day and the purpose of lessons/subjects taught in the context of the residential schools discussed in the resources, it's important to recognize the profound impact these institutions had on Indigenous communities. The information primarily comes from the podcast episodes exploring the experiences of survivors from different regions, including Gordon’s Indian Residential School in Saskatchewan. Unit 10 explores the evidence of ongoing colonization, the meaning and application of Palmater's (2019) statement, "The 'radical' politics of Indigenous peoples is not radical at all," and the ways the colonial government criminalized Indigenous identities. Unit 6 Activity 4 Q1. Catalog the sexist provisions outlined in the Indian Act according to Lawrence (2003)

3 In Bonita Lawrence's book, she discusses several sexist provisions outlined in the Indian Act that have had a profound impact on Indigenous women and their communities. One of the most glaring injustices was the Indian Act denied Indian status to women who married non- Indian men while granting status to non-Indian women who married Indian men (Lawrence, 2003). This resulted in the loss of status, rights, and benefits for many Indigenous women and their children. The second one is that the Indian Act imposed a patrilineal system of descent and inheritance (Lawrence, 2003). This system undermined the traditional matrilineal and matriarchal structures of many Indigenous societies. This also excluded many Indigenous women from participating in band governance and decision-making. The third one is that the Indian Act defined Indian status based on blood quantum, which measured the degree of Indian ancestry. This created a hierarchy of status and non-status Indians and encouraged assimilation and intermarriage with non-Indians (Lawrence, 2003). This also affected the identity and belonging of many Indigenous women and their descendants. Q2. Identify the implications of the Indian Act divisions of "Indians" and Metis. The division of "Indians" and Metis in The Indian Act has profound impacts on Indigenous communities in Canada. First, the Indian Act categorized status Indians and non- status unregistered Indians who lacked official recognition (Lawrence, 2003). Many non-status Indians are indigenous persons but are denied governmental support because of a lack of federal recognition. Secondly, this Act does not consider Metis as a separate native people and denies Metis the rights and benefits of status Indians. Métis are mixed indigenous and European descendant people with their unique history, culture, and identity. The lack of recognition and respect for the Métis has led to their invisibility and oppression in Canadian society (Lawrence, 2003). The Indian Act imposed Indigenous identity in a colonial Eurocentric framework. This

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4 framework has eliminated the diversity and complexity that characterizes Indigenous peoples' relations with each other and the land. Unit 7 Activity 3 Q1. What are some issues of how Métis women were spoken about in the historical record until the 1980s? Historically, until the 1980s, Métis women faced a multitude of challenges and injustices that persisted in the historical record. They were frequently ignored, silenced, and marginalized by colonial and patriarchal narratives (Iseke-Barnes, 2009). These women also contended with stereotypes and prejudices that cast them as passive, submissive, or promiscuous, consequently denying their agency, diversity, and complexity. The discriminatory Indian Act further compounded these issues, causing Métis women to lose status, rights, and benefits when they married non-Indigenous men. Additionally, their identities were often assimilated into other categories, such as Indian, French, and Scottish. This undervalued their significant contributions to Métis culture, history, and nationhood. Q2. How have Métis scholars addressed these issues through methodology? The use of certain methodologies by the Métis scholars has successfully answered the historical problems in their community. They have applied Métis specific frameworks and concepts. Examples of such frameworks are Metisage, Wahkohtowin, and Otipemisiwak (Iseke- Barnes, 2009). These contribute to Métis identity, culture, and vision of the world. Furthermore, it has been actively involving Métis Elders, storytellers, and members of their community. They recognized their voices, opinions, and wealth of knowledge as legitimate sources of authority and wisdom. Likewise, these scholars have adopted creative and collaborative approaches like

5 art, poetry, oral history, and learning-by-doing. This created avenues to share and celebrate their Métis stories, experiences, and values, thereby making the representation of the Métis heritage and legacy comprehensive and accurate. Q3. Explain the importance of Story in Métis' ways of being and knowing according to Campbell, Scofield, and Chartrand. According to Campbell, Scofield, and Chartrand, the significance of Story in Métis ways of being and knowing is multifaceted. Storytelling serves as a powerful means of connecting with ancestors, the land, and the spirit, facilitating the transmission of Métis history, culture, and identity across generations. Storytelling plays a crucial role in healing, empowerment, and transformation for Métis individuals and communities. It helps to address the enduring impacts of colonialism, racism, and oppression. Stories are instrumental in celebrating, honoring, and learning from Métis women, who hold the vital role of keepers, teachers, and leaders of Métis narratives. Q4. What does the graphic novel story tell us about Métis women in the 1800s? "Annie of Red River" graphic novel presents different views on the lives of Métis women during the 1800s. The story achieves this by showing the life and experiences of Annie Bannatyne, the Métis businesswoman and philanthropist who fought against racism and sexism (Vermette, 2019). It shows how Métis people experienced threats and conflicts with Canadian settlers and the government during the Red River Settlement. It displays Métis women's contribution to the community, which included trade, education, charity, and resistance. Unit 8 Activity 4 Q1. Describe the scrip and outline who was eligible.

6 The Canadian government introduced Métis scrip in the late 19th century to settle Métis land claims. Individuals received "scrip" in return for land or money under this project. Scrip Commissions were created after the Louis Riel-led North-West Resistance to settle Métis land claims. Métis scrip was mainly awarded to those of mixed Indigenous and European descent. Communities with Native and European roots suffered the most (Adese, 2011). The Lucille Gladu case illustrates this. After being labeled a "Treaty Indian," Lucille became a "Half-breed." The Scrip Commissions categorized and managed claims, giving Métis people an option between land and money for abandoning Indigenous rights. However, the Canadian government avoided Indigenous Peoples' obligations due to this hastened process. Renouncing "Treaty Indian" status to accept scrip reinforced Euro-Canadian paternalism. So, Métis scrip represents colonial Canada's junction of identity, land rights, and government paternalism. Q2. Discuss how scrip allows the Federal government to negate its responsibility to Indigenous Peoples. The Canadian government used the scrip procedure to avoid its obligations to Indigenous Peoples, particularly Métis. This allowed the government to quickly resolve Métis land claims without acknowledging their rights (Adese, 2011). Choosing scrip meant giving up future Indigenous rights claims. People were pressured to select scrip over "Treaty Indians." This fast and effective approach helped the government create discrete categories to manage and control individuals during colonial expansion. It allowed the government to avoid Indigenous community responsibilities, molding Métis identity and rights to meet colonial goals. Q3. Identify the paternalistic racism evident through the scrip process.

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7 The "civilized" litmus test for Half-breed scrip exposed paternalistic prejudice by requiring Euro-Canadian civility. Indian agents and local clerics assessed Western civility, modernity, and progress as superior, reflecting ethnocentric beliefs at the time. The fact that applicants, like Lucille Gladu, needed male friends to verify their trustworthiness and translate underlined this evaluation's patriarchal bent (Adese, 2011). This exacerbated the scrip process's discriminatory nature, entrenched in whiteness and assumed supremacy. By perpetuating a colonial narrative that excluded Métis people based on subjective and biased criteria, the scrip system reinforced the late 19th-century Canadian government's paternalistic bigotry toward Indigenous Peoples. Unit 9 Activity 3: Q1: Organization of the Day: The podcast episodes provide glimpses into the daily lives of students in residential schools. The day was likely highly structured, emphasizing routine and order. Students would engage in various activities, including academic lessons, religious teachings, and work assignments. The rigid structure of the day was a key aspect of assimilation efforts, aiming to erase Indigenous cultures and replace them with Euro-Canadian norms. For instance, “by retaining their language and culture, those who had not gone to school at Sussex Vale were seen to be better off than those who had gone there” (p.69). Q2. Expectations at Different Times: Different times of the day were likely dedicated to specific activities, ranging from academic studies to religious indoctrination. Mornings might have involved classroom education,

8 afternoons might include vocational training or chores, and evenings could involve religious ceremonies or other activities aimed at cultural erasure. The expectations were designed to mold Indigenous children into Euro-Canadian societal norms, suppressing their languages, cultures, and traditions. Q3. Purpose of Lessons/Subjects Taught: The primary purpose of the lessons and subjects taught in these residential schools was assimilation. The curriculum aimed to erase Indigenous identity, language, and culture. Religious teachings, often intertwined with the educational system, played a significant role in this process. Subjects taught were not designed to celebrate or preserve Indigenous knowledge but to overwrite it with Euro-Canadian perspectives. The emphasis was on creating a homogenous Canadian society based on Western values. Q4. Critically Thinking According to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC): According to the TRC, the education outcomes provided by residential schools were deeply damaging. The assimilation policies led to the loss of language, culture, and traditional knowledge among Indigenous peoples. The TRC, in its calls to action, recognizes the need for reconciliation and redress for the harm caused by these policies. “The Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada has yet to locate a single, system-wide directive on discipline that applies to this historical period. The churches and, more specifically, individual principals were left to develop their own policies” (p.532). The TRC emphasizes acknowledging the truth of these experiences, promoting awareness, and working towards systemic change to address the historical and ongoing impacts of residential schools.

9 In conclusion, the organization of the day in residential schools was centered around a structured routine aimed at assimilation. Lessons and subjects were designed to erase Indigenous identity, and critically thinking through the lens of the TRC underscores the devastating impact these educational practices had on Indigenous communities. Reconciliation efforts are crucial to address the historical trauma inflicted by residential schools and work towards a more just and inclusive society. Unit 10 Activity 3 Q1. Provide evidence of ongoing colonization. The ongoing colonization of Indigenous peoples in Canada includes the state and corporate theft and destruction of Indigenous lands, waters, and resources. It also involves the violent intervention of state police and military to suppress Indigenous resistance and survival. The criminalization of Indigenous identity, culture, and subsistence is another ongoing colonization (Palmeter, 2019). Another evidence of ongoing colonization is the denial of Indigenous rights and sovereignty and the imposition of colonial values and systems. Ongoing colonization also involves the denial of Indigenous history and genocide. It also involves a lack of justice and accountability for the crimes committed against Indigenous peoples. Q2. Explain the sentiment of Palmater's (2019) statement, "The 'radical' politics of Indigenous peoples is not radical at all" (p.136)

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10 From this sentiment, Palmater argues that the radical politics of Indigenous peoples is not radical at all but a continued reliance on their traditional values and beliefs to revitalize their cultures and identities. They reconnect with the land and ecosystems for their mutual health and well-being. They also heal the intergenerational effects of colonialism and assert their inherent rights and responsibilities as sovereign nations. She suggests that Indigenous peoples are not seeking to overthrow the state or the system but to coexist peacefully and respectfully with other peoples and the natural world, as they have done for millennia before colonization. She contends that Indigenous peoples are labeled as radicals and terrorists by the state and mainstream society because they challenge the colonial status quo (Palmater, 2019). They expose the injustices and inequalities that are embedded in the Canadian system. Q3. Outline the ways the colonial government had criminalized Indigenous identities. The following are ways the colonial government criminalized Indigenous identities. First, the colonial government criminalized Indigenous identities by passing laws and policies (Palmeter, 0:56) that restricted and prohibited various aspects of Indigenous life, such as the Indian Act, the Indian Residential School System, the Sixties Scoop, the Pass System, the Potlatch Ban, and the Gradual Civilization Act. Second, the colonial government criminalized Indigenous identities by enforcing a patrilineal and blood quantum system of descent and inheritance. This system undermined the traditional matrilineal and matriarchal structures of many Indigenous societies and excluded many Indigenous women and their descendants from their status, rights, and benefits. The colonial government criminalized Indigenous identities by imposing a colonial and Eurocentric framework of Indigenous identity (Palmeter, 2018). This erased the diversity and complexity of Indigenous peoples and their relationships to the land and

11 each other. It also disrupted the traditional ways of defining and expressing Indigenous identity, which was based on kinship, community, and spirituality.

12 References Lawrence, B. (2003). Gender, Race, and the Regulation of Native Identity in Canada and the United States: An Overview. Hypatia , 18 (2), 3–31. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1527- 2001.2003.tb00799 . Iseke-Barnes, J. (2009). Grandmothers of the Metis nation. Native Studies Review , 18 (2), 25-60. Palmater, P. (2019). The radical politics of Indigenous resistance and survival.In Routledge handbook of radical politics (pp. 131-162). Routledge. Pam Palmeter (2018). Education for the Resistance. https://www.youtube.com/watch? v=OufKq2t4NH4&t=26s Adese, J. (2011). “R” Is for Métis: Contradictions in Scrip and Census in the Construction of a Colonial Métis Identity. TOPIA: Canadian Journal of Cultural Studies , 25 , 203–212. https://doi.org/10.3138/topia.25.203 Vermette, K., (2019) Annie of Red River. In S., Akiwenzie-Damm, Assu, B., Mitchell, R., Qitsualik-Tinsley, S., Qitsualik-Tinsley, D., Robertson, N.J., Sinclair, J., Storm, R., Van Camp, K., Vermette, C., Vowel, D., Yaciuk, A., Elliott, T., Audibert, K., Charles, N., Donovan, S.A., Ford, S. B, Henderson, S. R., Howe, & a., Lodwick, A. (Eds.). This place: 150 years retold. HighWater Press. (pp.3-28) Canada’s Residential Schools: The History, Part 1 Origins to 1939 The Final Report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada Volume 1.

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Unit Activity 6-10 (Indian Act Impact on Indigenous Women and Métis in Canada)

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