EXAM REVIEW research soc2206

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Western University *

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2206A

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Sociology

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Jan 9, 2024

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Direct Content Analysis - It has a deductive approach tests theory rather than generating it - Use predetermined codes that are derived from theory - During the data analysis, however, additional codes are added if they do not fit into the pre- existing coding frame that is suggested by the theoretical framework that is being tested Conventional Content Analysis - Codes are developed only during data analysis and are derived from the data - There are often several stages in the coding process (open coding, axial coding, and selective coding) - After codes are developed, patterns are detected and linkages among codes are identified to generate a theory Ideal Type - (Weber) compareideal forms (e.x. suggested by theory) to empirical observations Equivalence - The issue of making comparison across diverse contexts, or whether a researcher, living in a specific time period and culture, correctly rads, understands, or conceptualizes data about people from a different historical era or culture Qualitative Coding - Researcher codes by organizing the raw data into conceptual categories and creates themes or concepts. Instead of a simple clerical task, coding is an integral part of data anlysis guided by the research question. Quantitative Coding - Codes after all the data have been collected. Arranges measures of variables, which are in the form of numbers, into a machine-readable form for statistical analysis Coding (open, axial, and selective) - Open: find conceptual categories in the data - Axial: look at the relationship between categories - Selective: to account for relationships, find more categories

Sociogram - A diagram or map that shows the network of social relationships, influence patterns, or communication paths among a group of people or units. Successive Approximation - Move back and forth between theory and data until theory (or generalization) is perfected Elite Studies - Special type of field research - Elites difficult to study, especially with quantitative methods - Preferred method oof field study - Special problems o Gatekeepers o Need for connections/contacts o Danger of manipulation o Difficulty of establishing trust Gatekeeper - Someone with the formal or informal authority to control access to a site. Guilty Knowledge - When a researcher in field research learns of illegal, unethical, or immoral actions by the people in the field site that is not widely known Hawthorne Effect - An effect of reactivity names after a famous case in which subjects reacted to the fact that they were in an experiment more than they reacted to the treatment - Refers to change in behaviour produced by the “stimulus” of being singled out and made to feel important during the experimental process - First observed 1925-1928 at Hawthorne plant in Illinois during series of experiments on effects of lighting on worker productivitiy - Explanation for increase provided by Professor Elton Mayo (“founder” of human relations theory) Four Experiments - Used three experimental groups and no control group. Found productivity increased when lighting improved

- Experimental and control group used. Experimental group had increased lighting. Both groups showed increased productivity - Experimental and control group used. Experimental group had decreased lighting. Both groups showed increased productivity - Two women studied under varying lighting conditions. Subjects increased productivity according to which lighting conditions (more or less) researchers said were “good” Ethnomenthodology - A collection of data collection and analysis approaches that are linked together through an overarching theoretical orientation Ethnography - A way of building an understanding of the culture and behaviours of a group as a whole - Done in a setting or field site where a group of people share a common culture - In sociology, ethnography usually called a field study - Uses: o Participant Observation o Interviews with informants o Examination of documents and cultural artifacts Phenomenology - Understanding an experience from a research participant’s point of view - Interview several participants as to their perceptions of an experience - Try to build a picture of the experience through using a combination of theories, literature in the area, illustrated by anecdotes, to build a detailed portrait of the experience Normalizing Research - Techniques in field research used by researchers to make the people being studied feel more comfortable with the research process and to help them accept the researcher’s presence Analytic Induction - Look at the event and develop a hypothetical statement of what happened - Look at another similar event and see if it fits the hypothesis - If it doesn’t, revise the hypothesis - Look for exceptions to hypothesis, when you find it, revise the hypothesis to fit all examples encountered - Eventually a hypothesis will be developed that accounts for all observed cases Grounded Theory - Widely used in qualitative research and is a method that uses a systematic set of procedures to develop an inductively derived theory about a phenomenon - Theories are empirically grounded into the data - Data collection and analysis are combined

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- Cycle: observe data, modify theory, observe data based on theory - Meaning is derived from the data Groupthink - In focus group research, refers to people’s natural desire to avoid conflict and lean toward group consensus, even when the opinion of the group does not reflect their own personal opinion Field notes, Jotted notes, etc. - Creating files helps organize field notes for analysis o Chronological file as a master file o Background files (from literature review, and documentation of topic’s history) o Biographical files on key subjects in the study o Bibliographical files of all references related to study o Analystical files to categorize what you are observing o Cross-reference files may be useful to retrieve data - Primary and Secondary Sources - Primary Sources: the letters, diaries, newspapers, movies, novels, articles or clothing, photographs, and so forth of those who lived in the past that have survived to the present are primarily sources. They are found in archives, in private collections, in family closets, and in museums. - Secondary Sources: to get a broader picture, many historical researchers use secondary sources, the writings of specialist historians who have spent years studying primary sources. Running Records, Recollections Running: Statistics and government data Recollections: Words or writings of individuals about their past lives or experiences based on memory or recollections Ecological Fallacy - Something that appears to be a causal explanation but is not. It occurs because of a confusion about units of analysis. A researcher has empirical evidence about an association for large-scale units or huge aggregates but overgeneralizes to make theoretical statements about an association among small-scale units or individuals Nomothetic and Idiographic Orientations

- An approach based on laws or one that operates according to a system of laws Erosion and Accretion Measures - Erosion: selective wear - Accretion: deposits of something left behind - A researcher examines the brands of aluminum beverages cans in trash or recycling bins in males’ and females’ dormitories Attitude of Strangeness - A technique in field research in which researchers study a field site by mentally adjusting to see it for the first time or as an outsider. Galton’s Problem - Formulated as a purely statistical problem concerned with assuring the independence of the cultures being compared. - As all manner oof exchanges occur between cultures, particularly those that are near each other, the question that needed (and still needs) to be answered is how do we know that the similarities across cultures are not a result of diffusion – coming together Sequential Data Collection - When data for different parts of a mixed method project are collected in stages (e.x. not at the same time) Mixed Methods - When more than one research method is used to address a research question; often refers specifically to when qualitative and quantitative methods are used together in a single project Multi-Method Research - An approach of using more than one quantitative method or more than one qualitative method in a single research project Complete Observer - In field research, when a researcher only observes the study group without participating in their activities.

Complete Participant - In field research, when a researcher fully participates in all aspects of the study group’s activities as though a member Nonreactive - Measures in which people being studied are unaware that they are in a study Unobtrusive Measures - Another name for nonreactive measures, it emphasized that the people being studied are not aware f it because the measures do not intrude SHORT QUESTIONS Identify 2 of the 4 major quantitative approaches treated in your text and discuss their advantages and disadvantages. - Survey Research o Possible to cover large populations o Can cover a large range of topics o Questions from respondent to respondent are comparable because they are asked in the same way and order - Quantitative content analysis o Nonreactive o Possible to use probability sampling techniques o Data can be rechecked and reanalyzed to check for accuracy o Often inexpensive - Existing statistics/documents and secondary analysis o Data are often free and fairly easy to access o Using existing sources frees up the immense amount of time that the data collection procedure can take o Many better known, nationally represented data sets (e.x. NLSCY, GSS, Labour Force Survey) are highly reputable and are unlikely to have serious flaws - Experimental research o The only technique that allows causation to be demonstrated What types of historical evidence do historical researchers draw upon? Who would have produced this evidence? - Primary Sources: the letters, diaries, newspapers, movies, novels, articles or clothing, photographs, and so forth of those who lived in the past that have survived to the present are primarily sources. They are found in archives, in private collections, in family closets, and in museums.

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- Secondary Sources: to get a broader picture, many historical researchers use secondary sources, the writings of specialist historians who have spent years studying primary sources. - Running Records: files of existing statistical documents maintained by organizations (e.x. a file in a country church that contains a record of every marriage and every death from 1910 to the present) - Recollections: the worlds or writing of individuals about their past or experiences based on memory are recollections. These can be in the form of memoirs, autobiographies, or interviews. What are the strengths and limitatiosn of mixed methods research incorporating both quantitative and qualitative approaches? Do you think a researcher should strive to use mixed methods research? Why or why not? Strengths - Rich text, narrative, and images can add meaning to numbers and vice-versa - Grounded theory can be both generated and tested - Broader research questions can be answered - Strengths of one approach can offset the weakness of another - More insights may be generated than if only single approach is used - A more complete picture of social life may be revealed - Generalizability of findings can increase Weaknesses - It is very labour intensive, particularly for a single researcher, and expensive - The researcher may have to learn about research methods with which he or she is not familiar in order to practice them effectively - Mixing methods violates the philosophical underpinnings of these approaches - Conflicting results from quantitative and qualitative components can be difficult to resolve Yes - Because undertaking a research project employing mixed methods would yield far superior insights into human behaviour than just one approach alone No - The two approaches are far too diverse and so a successful mixed methods study is not possible; qualitative and quantitative approaches are philosophically incompatible What are the two main properties of a mixed methods research (quantitative and qualitative)? - Determining the priority and sequencing of approaches What are the decisions that need to be made before a researcher starts collecting and analyzing data in a mixed-method (qualitative and quantitative) research study? What is the difference between sequential and concurrent data analysis in mixed-method research?

Select a hypothetical topic. Describe how a complete participant and a complete observer might study that subject (e.x. Gold’s levels.) What are the problems associated with each type of observation? - A hypothetical topic of finding what games develop more violent behaviours - Complete Participant: take part in playing the games and examine not only his own behaviours but also the other participants. Problem will be that they will not be able to examine the others as well as if they looked from outside - Complete Observer: Better to observe from a distance and take a closer look but will not have a personal experience in it Describe the logic of nonreactive or unobtrusive measurement and provide three examples of nonreactive measures (empirical evidence). - When examining someone while they don’t know they are being studied allows a natural reaction to situations that will not be forced. - public studies (camera and faking a situation to see reactions) Describe qualitative interviewing, comparing it to interviewing in survey research. What are the three types of interviews and how do they differ? - Three Types o Structured o Semi-Structured o In-depth Describe the different types of qualitative interview questions (Kvale). Introducing Questions - “I was just wondering how you think of bullying?” Follow Up Questions - “Ok, during what years in school did you feel this happening to you?| Probing Questions - “You didn’t develop any interests?” Specifying Questions

- “And did they all last for the duration of the school year?| Direct Questions - “Do you think having been bullied as a child has affected how you are today?” Indirect Questions - “Why do you think they picked you to harass?| Structuring Questions - “OK. Do you think that … I know weve already talked about this, but do you think that bullying has had any effect on your personal relationships in your adult life?” Interpreting Questions - “From what you were saying, you weren’t really safe at school?” Silence - “Wow” (pause) What are two overall disadvantages of quantitative approaches to doing social research? What are two overall disadvantages of qualitative approaches to doing social research? What are the steps in a historical research project? 1. Conceptualization of an idea, topic, or research question 2. Locate evidence and do background literature review 3. Evaluate evidence 4. Organize evidence 5. Synthesize evidence and develop general explanatory model 6. Develop a narrative exposition of the findings Think of three research questions for which survey research would be an appropriate technique of observation. Describe whether and why these three topics are better suited to an interview survey, an online, survey, a mailed questionnaire, or a telephone interview survey.

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Describe a study for which the secondary analysis of existing statistics is the appropriate research method. What source would you use? What problems might you encounter, and how would you resolve them? Describe how coding and memoing are used in qualitative analysis - Open: find conceptual categories in the data - Axial: look at the relationship between categories - Selective: to account for relationships, find more categories Memoing - Essential aspect of coding process - Made up of reflections and ideas about coding - Creates the link between raw data or evidence and formal theorizing and hypothesis creation Explain what is meant by internal and external validity. What is the difference? Internal: no threats to the internal aspects of the study External: no threats to the external aspects of the study Internal validity can be compromised when something happens that affects the inside of the study Describe the oral history method and explain when it would be used When discussing something that happened in history and collecting information from an individual or group that was present at the time. What is the Hawthorne effect? What is its significance to experimental research? Happened when a group of subjects reacted more to the fact that they were a part of the study than the treatments themselves. It proved that people perform better when they are being monitored or tested. This is significant because if a group was brought in to be studied, they will work harder than if they are just being watched without knowing.

EXAM REVIEW research soc2206

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