Study guide test one

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SOC 468 Study Guide For Test I Fall 2023 Introductory Lecture and Chapter 1 Questions 1. What are differences between “common sense” and “scientific inquiry”? Explain. Common sense refers to the practical knowledge and understanding that is generally shared by people in everyday life, often based on intuition and personal experiences. It relies on informal, unstructured reasoning and may not always be accurate or consistent. Scientific inquiry, on the other hand, is a systematic and methodical process of investigating the natural world through empirical evidence, controlled experiments, and rigorous analysis. It aims to uncover objective truths, is subject to peer review, and follows established methodologies. While common sense can be subjective and fallible, scientific inquiry strives for objectivity and reliability through systematic research and testing. 2. Define a theory and explain various types of it. A theory is a systematic and organized set of principles or ideas that seek to explain and predict natural phenomena or human behavior based on empirical evidence and logical reasoning. There are various types of theories, including scientific theories, which are well-substantiated explanations of natural phenomena, such as Einstein's theory of relativity; psychological theories, which aim to understand and explain human cognition and behavior, like Freud's psychoanalytic theory; and social theories, which analyze and interpret societal structures and dynamics, such as Marx's theory of communism. The type of theory used depends on the field of study and the specific questions being addressed. 3. What is a paradigm? Explain Thomas Kuhn’s paradigmic shift. A paradigm is a framework or model that shapes the way scientists and researchers perceive and understand the world within a particular scientific discipline. Thomas Kuhn's concept of a paradigm shift refers to a fundamental change in the dominant framework or perspective within a scientific community. These shifts occur when anomalies and contradictions accumulate within the existing paradigm, leading to a crisis. Eventually, a new paradigm emerges, often accompanied by a change in how scientists view and approach their field, resulting in a transformation of accepted theories, methods, and assumptions. Kuhn's work emphasized the revolutionary nature of these shifts, which can drastically alter the course of scientific progress. 4. Be able to define “proposition,” “assumption,” “concept,” “hypothesis,” “nominal definition,” “real definition,” and “operational definition.” Proposition: A proposition is a statement or assertion that can be either true or false, often used in logic and philosophy to express ideas or arguments. Assumption: An assumption is a belief or supposition that is taken for granted or accepted without direct evidence, forming the basis for reasoning or decision-making. Concept: A concept is an abstract or generalized idea representing a category or class of objects, phenomena, or notions, helping to organize and understand information. Hypothesis: A hypothesis is a tentative explanation or prediction that can be tested through research or experimentation, serving as the basis for scientific investigation. Nominal Definition: A nominal definition provides a simple, dictionary-like explanation of a term, naming or labeling it without delving into its deeper meaning or characteristics. Real Definition: A real definition offers a comprehensive and precise explanation of a term, outlining its essential characteristics, functions, and significance within a particular context. Operational Definition: An operational definition defines a concept or variable in measurable and observable terms, specifying the procedures or criteria used to assess or quantify it, often employed in scientific research to ensure clarity and consistency. 5. Explain and demonstrate the differences between “inductive” and “deductive” reasoning?

Inductive reasoning involves drawing general conclusions based on specific observations or evidence. It starts with specific observations and then forms a broader, more generalized conclusion. For example, if you observe that every swan you've seen is white, you might use inductive reasoning to conclude that all swans are white. Deductive reasoning, on the other hand, starts with a general premise or statement and uses it to derive specific conclusions. It moves from the general to the specific. For instance, if you know that all men are mortal (general premise) and you have information that Socrates is a man (specific information), you can deduce that Socrates is mortal. 6. Be able to enumerate and explain the social forces in the development of industrial revolution, and subsequently laid ground for the development of sociological theory. The Industrial Revolution was driven by several key social forces that laid the groundwork for the development of sociological theory. First, urbanization led to the rapid growth of cities and the emergence of new social structures and challenges. Second, technological advancements, such as steam power and mechanization, transformed the economy and labor relations, giving rise to issues of class and inequality. Third, the shift from agrarian to industrial societies disrupted traditional social norms and family structures. Lastly, the Enlightenment and its emphasis on reason and empiricism fostered a climate of critical inquiry, inspiring early sociologists like Auguste Comte and Emile Durkheim to study and theorize about these societal changes, ultimately giving birth to the field of sociology. 7. Discuss the concept of secularism and secularization, as discussed by the instructor in class. Secularism refers to the separation of religion from government and public affairs, ensuring that no particular religious group holds a dominant or privileged position in society. It promotes religious freedom and equal treatment for all faiths. Secularization, on the other hand, is a broader sociological process where religious influence wanes in various aspects of life, including politics, education, and culture, as societies become more focused on secular values and institutions. It involves the declining significance of religion in shaping social norms and public policies, reflecting a more secular orientation in society Chapter 2: Classical Theories: Durkheim, Marx, and Weber Emile Durkheim 1. Define the concept of “social fact” and its characteristics, according to Durkheim and how it relates to his notion of sociology. Emile Durkheim introduced the concept of "social fact," referring to patterns of behavior, values, and norms that exist independently of individual choices. Social facts are external to individuals, shape collective behavior, and are central to Durkheim's sociology, emphasizing the study of how social forces influence and regulate human actions. 2. Define mechanical and organic solidarity and explain the types of law relevant to societies dominated by each. Mechanical solidarity refers to social cohesion based on shared values and similarity among individuals. In such societies, repressive law is relevant to maintain order. Organic solidarity is based on interdependence and specialization, found in diverse societies, where restitutive law is used to address conflicts and restore harmony. 3. Define social integration for Durkheim and how it incorporates people into the mainstream of society. Durkheim's concept of social integration refers to the degree to which individuals are connected to and involved in the larger society. It incorporates people into the mainstream of society by fostering a sense of belonging, shared values, and mutual support, reducing feelings of isolation and promoting social cohesion. 4. Define collective conscience and four variables determining the nature of it, according to Durkheim. Collective conscience, as defined by Emile Durkheim, refers to the shared beliefs, values, and norms within a society that shape individuals' behavior. Four variables determining its nature include integration (degree of social

cohesion), regulation (extent of control over individual actions), moral density (strength of shared beliefs), and moral heterogeneity (diversity of values). 5. How does Durkheim approach the concept of suicide? Emile Durkheim approaches the concept of suicide by analyzing sociological factors that influence it, such as social integration and regulation. He categorizes suicide into four types (egoistic, altruistic, anomic, and fatalistic) and argues that social cohesion and norms play a crucial role in determining suicide rates within a society. 6. Explain four types of suicide in relation to integration and regulation. Egoistic suicide: Occurs when individuals have low integration into society, feeling isolated or detached. Altruistic suicide: Results from excessive integration, where individuals sacrifice themselves for a greater cause. Anomic suicide: Arises due to a lack of regulation, often during times of societal upheaval or economic instability. Fatalistic suicide: Occurs when individuals experience excessive regulation, feeling trapped and oppressed in their lives. 7. What is anomie and how does it relate to the division of labor, according to Durkheim? Explain. Anomie, as described by Durkheim, is a state of normlessness or breakdown in social norms. It relates to the division of labor by suggesting that excessive specialization and lack of social integration can lead to feelings of alienation and normlessness in society, ultimately contributing to social instability. 8. Discuss Durkheim’s notion of religion and its function in society. Emile Durkheim viewed religion as a social institution that fosters social cohesion and solidarity by providing a shared set of beliefs and values. It serves to reinforce social norms and provide individuals with a sense of belonging and purpose in society. 9. Discuss Durkheim’s concept of morality and its elements. Durkheim's concept of morality focuses on social norms and values that bind individuals in a society. Its elements include collective conscience (shared beliefs), sanctions (rewards/punishments), and social integration (degree of connectedness), which maintain social order and cohesion. 10. Discuss Durkheim’s notion of education and its functions. Durkheim's concept of education emphasizes its role in fostering social cohesion and moral values within a society. He believed education serves to transmit cultural norms, promote solidarity, and prepare individuals for their roles in the division of labor. Durkheim saw education as a key institution for maintaining social stability. Karl Marx: 1. Explain and discuss various dimensions of Marx’s dialectical materialism. Marx's dialectical materialism combines dialectics, a method of analyzing contradictions and change, with materialism, emphasizing material conditions' role in shaping society. It explores class struggle, historical materialism, and the idea that economic base influences the superstructure, including ideology. It underpins Marxist analysis of capitalism and social change. 2. What is Marx’s view of technology and how does it relate to his notion of social change? Explain. Marx viewed technology as a driving force in social change. He believed that technological advancements, driven by capitalism's pursuit of profit, would lead to increased production efficiency. This, in turn, would intensify class struggle as workers sought better conditions, eventually culminating in a revolution and the establishment of a classless communist society, where technology would serve common human needs. 3. Define Marx’s concept of ideology and compare it with the meaning given to it in popular language. Marx's concept of ideology refers to a set of beliefs and ideas that serve the interests of a particular social or economic class, often masking or justifying the existing power structures. In popular language, "ideology" can be used more broadly to describe any system of beliefs or ideas, not necessarily tied to class interests or power dynamics. Marx's concept has a more specific and critical focus on the role of ideology in maintaining social inequalities. 4. Be able to list, discuss, and explain various stages of history as delineated by Marx. Primitive Communism: Marx suggested that in early human history, people lived in small, egalitarian, and communal societies where resources were shared collectively. Ancient Mode of Production: This stage involved the emergence of private property and class divisions, with slave and feudal societies being prominent examples. Here, the means of production were controlled by a

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privileged class. Feudalism: Feudalism featured a hierarchical social structure, with landowners (lords) and serfs. The agricultural economy was central to this stage. Capitalism: Marx believed capitalism was the dominant stage of his time. It's characterized by private ownership of the means of production, wage labor, and the pursuit of profit. Class struggle between capitalists (bourgeoisie) and workers (proletariat) is a central feature. Socialism (Transition to Communism): Marx envisioned this as a transitional stage where the proletariat would overthrow capitalism, seize the means of production, and establish a dictatorship of the proletariat. In this stage, wealth and resources would be more equitably distributed. Communism: Marx's ultimate goal was a classless society where the state would wither away, and resources would be distributed based on the principle "from each according to their ability, to each according to their needs." 5. Be able to explain and discuss Marx’s labor theory of value and its various components. Use-Value: Marx distinguished between a commodity's use-value, which is its ability to satisfy a human need or want. Use-value is subjective and varies from person to person. Exchange-Value: Exchange-value, on the other hand, represents a commodity's value in relation to other commodities, typically expressed in terms of a common measure, such as money. Exchange-value is objective and determined by the amount of labor embodied in the commodity. Labor as the Source of Value: Marx argued that the value of a commodity arises from the labor expended in its production. Specifically, it is the socially necessary labor time, or the average time it takes to produce a commodity using the prevailing technology and skills. Commodity Fetishism: Marx also introduced the idea of commodity fetishism, suggesting that in a capitalist society, people often attribute inherent value to commodities themselves, obscuring the fact that their value is a product of human labor. Surplus Value: Marx's theory of surplus value posits that in a capitalist system, workers are paid less than the full value of their labor. The surplus value they create through their labor is appropriated by the capitalist as profit. This exploitation is central to Marx's critique of capitalism. Commodification: Marx argued that under capitalism, almost everything becomes commodified, including labor itself. This process commodifies not just goods but also social relationships, leading to alienation and the devaluation of human labor. 6. Discuss Marx’s notion of human nature and how it becomes distorted within a capitalist system. Marx's notion of human nature is rooted in historical materialism and the idea that human beings are shaped by their social and economic conditions. He did not provide a fixed, unchanging concept of human nature but rather argued that it evolves with changes in the mode of production and social organization. Here's how Marx's view of human nature interacts with capitalism: Social Nature: Marx believed that humans are inherently social beings who seek connection and cooperation with others. He argued that human nature is not fixed but adaptable, shaped by the social and economic structures in which people live. Creative and Productive: Marx saw humans as inherently creative and productive, capable of transforming the natural world to meet their needs. He believed that work and creative expression were fundamental to human fulfillment.

Alienation under Capitalism: Marx contended that capitalism distorts human nature. In a capitalist system, workers are alienated from their labor because they have little control over the production process and often perform repetitive, monotonous tasks. They are estranged from the products they create because those products are owned and controlled by capitalists. Competitive Individualism: Capitalism promotes competitive individualism, where individuals are pitted against each other in pursuit of profit. This fosters a distorted sense of self-interest and can undermine cooperative and communal tendencies. Commodification of Human Relations: Marx argued that capitalism commodifies not only goods and services but also human relations. Relationships become transactional, driven by economic considerations rather than genuine human connection. Exploitation and Class Conflict: The exploitation of labor within capitalism, where workers are paid less than the value they produce, creates class conflict and exacerbates social inequality, distorting human relationships and undermining solidarity. 7. Explain Marx’s notion of alienation and various types of it Marx's notion of alienation refers to the separation of workers from the fruits of their labor under capitalism. He identified four types: Alienation from the product: Workers don't own or control what they produce. Alienation from the process: Workers lack control and creativity in their tasks. Alienation from fellow workers: Competitive rather than cooperative relations. Alienation from human potential: Work doesn't fulfill workers' true abilities. 8. Explain Marx’s view of capitalism and capitalist crises. Marx viewed capitalism as an economic system where private owners exploit labor for profit, leading to class struggle. He believed it would lead to recurring crises due to overproduction, falling profits, and inequality, ultimately necessitating a transition to socialism and then communism to address these issues. 9. Be able to define fetishism of commodities and reification with examples. Fetishism of commodities, a concept by Karl Marx, refers to the tendency in capitalist societies to attribute mystical or intrinsic value to commodities, obscuring their true social and labor-based origins. Reification is the process of treating abstract concepts or relationships as concrete entities; for instance, viewing money as an independent force rather than a social construct. 10. Explain Marx’s concepts of class consciousness, types of it, and false consciousness. Marx's class consciousness is awareness of one's social class and shared interests. Two types: "bourgeoisie" (capitalists) and "proletariat" (workers). False consciousness is when oppressed classes adopt beliefs that go against their interests, often due to capitalist ideology. 11. What some of the criticisms made against Marx’s ideas? Critics argue that Marx's ideas promote state control, overlook human nature, and underestimate the role of entrepreneurship. They also contend that his predictions about the inevitable collapse of capitalism have not materialized in modern market economies. Max Weber : 1. What are the major focuses in Weber’s approach to sociology as a discipline? Explain. Max Weber's sociology emphasizes understanding social actions, rationalization, and the role of values in shaping society. He explores the significance of bureaucracy, authority, and the Protestant Ethic in modern capitalism. Weber's approach aims to uncover the subjective meanings behind human behavior and the impact of cultural and historical factors on society. 2. Why do some call Weber idealist or pluralist, as explained by the instructor? Explain Some consider Max Weber an idealist or pluralist because he emphasized the role of ideas, values, and diverse power centers in shaping society. Idealist because he believed ideas influenced social change, and pluralist due to his recognition of multiple sources of authority and influence in complex societies. 3. Discuss Weber’s position on methodology of social sciences especially with regard to values, ideal types, and the concept of verstehen.

Max Weber advocated for the value-neutral approach in social sciences, emphasizing the importance of understanding social phenomena through "Verstehen" (interpretive understanding). He developed "ideal types" as analytical constructs to study social concepts, helping researchers clarify and analyze complex social realities while recognizing the role of values in research. 4. Discuss Weber’s notion of authority and various types of it. Make sure you provide examples. Max Weber identified three types of authority: traditional (e.g., monarchies), charismatic (e.g., religious leaders like Gandhi), and legal-rational (e.g., elected government officials). These forms of authority are based on legitimacy derived from tradition, personal appeal, or adherence to rules and laws, respectively. 5. Define social action according to Max Weber and explain four types of it as delineated by Weber. Max Weber defined social action as behavior driven by the subjective meaning individuals attach to their actions. He identified four types: Instrumental Rational Action: Goal-oriented, calculated behavior. Value-Rational Action: Driven by deeply held values or beliefs. Affectual Action: Emotionally driven behavior. Traditional Action: Guided by long-standing customs or habits. 6. Define rationalization and explain four types of rationality as explained by Weber. Max Weber defined rationalization as the process of replacing traditional and emotional ways of thinking with logical and efficient ones. He identified four types of rationality: practical, theoretical, formal, and substantive. Practical rationality aims at achieving specific goals efficiently, while theoretical rationality seeks knowledge. Formal rationality emphasizes consistency and calculation, while substantive rationality focuses on values and ethics. 7. Define Weber’s notions of social status and social class. How does his conception of stratification differ from that of Karl Marx? Explain. Max Weber distinguished social status as based on prestige and social class as based on economic factors. Unlike Karl Marx, Weber considered multiple dimensions of stratification, including power and lifestyle, not just class struggle. Marx emphasized class struggle between capitalists and workers as the primary driver of societal inequality. 8. Define Weber’s notion of power and authority. What are different types of authority according to him? Explain and provide examples. Max Weber distinguished three types of authority: Traditional (based on long-standing customs), Charismatic (derived from personal charisma), and Legal-Rational (grounded in legal rules and bureaucracy). For instance, a hereditary monarchy represents traditional authority, while a revolutionary leader like Nelson Mandela embodies charismatic authority, and modern government structures exemplify legal-rational authority. 9. Be able to list and elaborate on the features of a bureaucracy, according to Weber. Max Weber's bureaucracy features include: Hierarchy: Clear chain of command. Specialization: Division of labor. Formal Rules: Well-defined procedures. Impersonality: Decisions based on rules. Career Merit: Promotion based on skills. Efficiency: Goal-oriented operations. Record Keeping: Systematic documentation. Rationality: Logical decision-making. 10. Discuss the dialectical nature of bureaucracy in terms of its leveling effect as well as power consolidation. consolidates power. Bureaucracy levels by promoting merit-based advancement, reducing favoritism. Simultaneously, it consolidates power by centralizing authority and decision-making in hierarchical structures, potentially leading to the concentration of power in the hands of a few. 11. Discuss Weber’s view economics and the nature of modern capitalism. Max Weber's perspective on economics and modern capitalism emphasized the influence of cultural and social factors. He argued that the Protestant Ethic, with its emphasis on hard work and thrift, played a crucial role in the rise of capitalism. Weber's work highlighted the interconnectedness of economic and cultural forces in shaping the modern capitalist system. 12. Discuss Weber’s view of religion and how the changes in Christian religion contributed to the

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development of capitalism in the Western society. Max Weber believed that Protestantism, particularly the Calvinist doctrine, played a crucial role in the rise of capitalism in the West. He argued that the Protestant work ethic, emphasizing hard work, frugality, and worldly success as signs of God's favor, encouraged economic growth. This religious shift in values and attitudes contributed to the development of capitalism in Western society.

Study guide test one

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