M#224907087 Factors That Contribute To Wrongful Convictions In American Criminal Justice 2022

docx

School

San Francisco State University *

*We aren’t endorsed by this school

Course

500

Subject

Sociology

Date

Nov 24, 2024

Type

docx

Pages

Uploaded by MagistrateScorpion15560

1 Factors That Contribute to Wrongful Convictions in American Criminal Justice FirstName MiddleInitial(s) LastName Institutional Affiliation (Department Institution) Course Number and Name Instructor Name and Title Assignment Due Date

2 Abstract and Summary The paper highlights the discriminatory and racist criminal justice tendencies and practices that have unjustly targeted Afro-Americans since the early days of immigration of people into the New World. In the report, the analysts' outcomes the racist codes, including the Jim Crow laws formed to unfairly promote white privileges while promoting discrimination against Afro-Americans. Although the USA has made milestones in forming race-neutral laws, racism targeting Afro-Americans continues in fewer open ways. For example, the police target Afro-American communities during the crackdown on various crimes, such as violence and drug-related offenses. Biases at all CJS (criminal justice system) decision-making stages, from juror selection to sentencing, are racial-based issues contributing to racial discrimination in black communities. The social-economic inequality also disfavors the blacks over whites in the disparate treatment in the criminal justice system. For example, more blacks than whites per capita live in underprivileged neighborhoods, exposing them to discrimination and stigmatization by the criminal justice system. Disparate and inappropriate treatment of blacks within the criminal justice system drives cycles of social-economic inequality and poverty within racial minorities. 1. Introduction The over-representation of black people in the American justice system is a deep-rooted issue and well-documented. While Blacks account for approximately 13% of the country’s population, nearly 47% of all people acquitted after incarceration for crimes they did not commit are Afro-American men (Stephens, Possley, & Gross, 2017, p.1). The inherent causes of this disparate treatment in the American justice system are rooted in the dark American history of discrimination and racism.

3 In a multi-ethnic society like the USA, the race is at the center of the social and legal structures, including criminal justice (Stephens, Possley, & Gross, 2017, p.1). Conviction of innocent people based on their race is not an exception in a multi-ethnic and multiracial society. According to Stephens et al., 47% of the defendants vindicated for proving their innocence were black as of October 2016 (2017, p.1). Surprisingly, blacks account for about 13% of the population. Therefore, this shows that blacks wrongfully convicted are nearly 3.5 times compared to whites. Such alarming figures show the need to review American criminal justice to identify and correct its flaws. The figures on the exonerated people are not surprising because blacks are overrepresented at every decision stage, including arrests, jury selection, prosecution, and sentencing in criminal justice (The Sentencing Project, 2018). Hence, it is not hard to predict that more black people per capita will be wrongfully convicted than other racial groups. However, this begs why black people are at higher risk of being convicted than other ethnic minorities (Bryant‐Davis, Adams, Alejandre, & Gray, 2017, p.855). In this report, the focus is to demystify the causes of the disparate treatment of racial minorities, particularly the Afro-Americans, leading to their wrongful convictions. The paper illustrates black people's continued racism and oppression in a white-dominated society. In addition, this paper illustrates how the history of racism continues to manifest itself in the American justice system (Bryant‐Davis et al., 2017, p.860). The evidence presented in this paper accentuates the impact of racial-based discrimination on the Afro-Americans and the impact on their lives and those of their families or communities. 2. Body (Factors Leading to Wrongful Convictions of Racial Minorities, Especially Blacks in American Justice System)

Your preview ends here

Eager to read complete document? Join bartleby learn and gain access to the full version

Access to all documents
Unlimited textbook solutions
24/7 expert homework help

4 Deep-Rooted Racism as the Root of Wrongful Conviction in the USA Racial bias is doubtlessly the primary cause of wrongful convictions against blacks (Sebly, 2021, June 17). Over time, the USA has struggled unsuccessfully to end racism within its legal system, from policing methods to prosecution and trial to conviction. Although the American laws should apply equally to all people, this was never the intention of the constitution drafters and American founders (Graham, Haner, Sloan, Cullen, Kulig, & Jonson, 2020, p.555). Instead, during its drafting, the constitution aimed to promote the continued promotion of “white privilege,” especially the protection of the white elites that owned property. The federalist papers upon which the American founders framed the constitution did not extend equal rights to racial minorities (Asians and Africans) and women (Bryant‐Davis et al., 2017, p.860). Hence, this droves to unequal application of laws in all criminal justice systems. The inequality in legal systems was open, encouraging the rise of social protest movements agitating for equal application of laws. In response, federal and state governments created a formal police force to control and monitor the activities of these movements (Sebly, 2021, June 17). Hence, the USA formalized the police force to quash resistance and maintain the status quo that favored “white privileges.” Research indicates that disparate incarceration of minorities, mainly the Afro-Americans, embodies the country's dark and is borne directly out of racial brutality aggravated by Jim Crow laws. During the Jim Crow era, the government enacted the most racist and oppressive laws to maintain the status quo that favored Caucasians. According to Selby, Afro-Americans represent 40% (N= 2.3 million people) of inmates and approximately half of all exonerees (2021, June 17). Such figures are alarming because Afro-Americans account for only 13% of the population. To a large extent, subjectivity in policing and trial are the reasons for these alarming figures that

5 expose disproportionate sentencing and treatment of Afro-Americans (Hinto & Reed, 2018, p.2). Contrary to natural justice principles, American legal system stakeholders, including police, juries, judges, and other players, presume Afro-Americans guilty even before the due process takes its cause or the courts prove so. Hence, Afro-Americans face the risk of being denied justice. Most of the victimized people, including those wrongly incarcerated, are from economically and socially disadvantaged communities. For example, individuals living in abject poverty are at a greater risk of being wrongly arrested and incarcerated for the crimes they did not commit. Because Afro-Americans are the most social-economically disadvantaged community, they are at a greater risk of being wrongly incarcerated. Intentionally Discriminatory Laws Targeting Afro-Americans Racial inequities in criminal justice decision-making stages stem from flawed penal code and dark American history. According to Hinton and Reeds, blacks were the primary targets of arrests, torture, incarceration, and sentencing, especially in the South during the emancipation era (2018, p.2). At the time, the penal code capitalized on the 13 th Amendment loophole that technically allowed enslaving of the incarcerated people (The Sentencing Project, 2018). Hence, this loophole allowed slavery of the Afro-Americans confined in the detention camps. Moreover, confederate states in the South enacted “Black Codes” that brought back slavery. Under these codes, enslavers could force formerly enslaved people into exploitative and oppressive labor on the plantation farms (Stephens, Possley, & Gross, 2017, p.1). Although these could recognize the citizenship status of Afro-Americans, it was not in 1870 that they gained suffrage rights (Hinton & Reeds, 2018, p.2). Confederate states created “Vagrancy Laws” drawn

6 from “Black Codes.” The “Vagrancy Laws” allowed black persons to be arrested and incarcerated if they could not prove to have worked for a white master. The arrested and incarcerated people entered a “convict leasing,” a system that allowed renting inmates to work for the whites in the plantations (Bryant‐Davis et al., 2017, p.860). Most black people were arrested for “offenses” that breached human rights. For example, they were arrested for loitering around the cities or walking at night. Although these “Vagrancy Laws” no longer exists, they shaped the subjective and selective justice targeting blacks. Biases by Criminal Justice Actors (Police, Judges, and Juries) Laws can be racial-neutral. However, this cannot prevent biased and discriminatory treatment of the minority groups, especially the blacks. Available research has found system actors in criminal justice to be biased when making decisions (Graham et al., 2020, p.555). For example, the biased selection of the juries can lead to disparate treatment of the blacks. Incidents of open biases from arrests to prosecution and trial to sentencing are not uncommon. Frequent stops, searches, and seizures targeting the Afro-American community are common in the USA. Harsher penalties and pre-trial bargaining outcomes are more prevalent among black people than in other racial groups (Hinton & Reed, 2018, p.6). Hence, this proves that system actors are unfair when dealing with the Afro-Americans in the criminal justice system. According to Hinton and Reed, the bias expressed by justice system actors stems from overt racism. However, this racism often manifests itself as an implicit bias. Implicit bias involves favoritism of one group over another, inducing discriminatory behavior. From available evidence on incarceration, implicit bias induces system actors to lack objectivity when handling a crime (Graham et al., 2020, p.555). For example, this bias may lead a judge to sentence an Afro-American to death in a murder case if the victim is a white in a homicide case. Research

Your preview ends here

Eager to read complete document? Join bartleby learn and gain access to the full version

Access to all documents
Unlimited textbook solutions
24/7 expert homework help

7 has proven this by showing that an Afro-American is more likely to execute when a victim is white than compared to a fellow black person in a murder case ( Lattner, 2020 , p.13 ) . Therefore, this shows that judges in the USA are more lenient to white offenders and more remorseful if the victim is white. Hence, this shows how the black mistreats and discriminates against one group over the others. Because the law enforcement actors are the gateway to corrections and court systems, the sheriffs and police are the leeways to discrimination. Hence, knowing the impact of the biased policing practices leading to disparate treatment of Afro-Americans is critical (Hinton & Reed, 2018, p.6). Studies have shown that sheriffs and police quickly focused on blacks and considered the skewed physical attributes of Africans, including broad noses, thick lips, protruded jaws, and dark skin, when arresting people (Lopez‐Aguado, 2016, p.16; Hinton & Reed, 2018, p.6). Hence, this implicit bias led Afro-Americans to be at an exceptionally high risk of being stopped, searched and arrested compared to their white counterparts. The strategic policing decisions also show that police have an implicit bias in their duties. Available evidence shows that certain policing practices, including hot spot deployment, increase the risk of arresting and incarcerating Afro-American communities (The Sentencing Project, 2018). Most of the hot spots are the impoverished neighborhoods inhabited mainly by the black communities (Hinton & Reed, 2018, p.7). The social-economic underprivileged facing the black communities push them into the crime-infested neighborhoods and slums. Hence, their encounters with the police are high. Moreover, police use more force when dealing with blacks than handling whites. Recent cases of police brutality, including brutal police murders of blacks such as Michael Brown, provide prime evidence of the unfair use of violence by police against blacks (Wbur, 2016).

8 Although police can legitimately and legally use force, the cases above did not warrant force because the suspects were unarmed. The primary justifiable cause that police can use force, including shooting, is when their life is in reasonable danger (Lopez‐Aguado, 2016, p.16). The targeted police killing of the black people has reawakened social protests and the formation of movements such as BLM (Black Lives Matter) to resist racism and police violence against Afro- Americans. Ethnic and Racial Bias in the Juror Selection Race and ethnicity come into play in the juror selection, eroding the impartiality needed in the American CJS. A recent study by Kovera revealed the deep-rooted racial disparity in selecting jurors responsible for trying and recommending sentences to the judges (2019). Often, most of the juries selected are Caucasians during most case hearings. Additionally, these juries are unfair in most of their verdicts by recommending harsher penalties for people of color and lighter sentences for Euro-Americans for the same offenses. Research has also shown that American juries often favored the defendants and accusers if they were from the white majority, technically accentuating “white privileges” and domination (Graham et al., 2020, p.555). For example, a white jury and a judge rebutted the self-defense argument when in a case involving an Afro-American woman that murdered had a Caucasian husband (Hunt, 2017; Kovera, 2019). Hence, this proved that Caucasian juries are prejudicial and lenient towards Euro-American defendants and accusers. Such open bias has hindered racial minorities from getting justice as required by the law. Biased Law Enforcement Tools

9 Technology has also impacted law enforcement strategies. With technological advancement, police have turned to A.I. (artificial intelligence) to predict results. For example, police use AI-based algorithms to predict crime. Most of these algorithms have questionable integrity because they lead to a biased picture of future crime trends (Sebly, 2021, June 17). The A.I. relies on past trends or historical data to predict events. Since historical data shows blacks to represent the biggest group per capita of arrested, incarcerated, and search people, the A.I. policing tools cannot provide a perfect picture of the crime overview ( Lattner, 2020 , p.13 ) . The biased representation reveals that many black people are overrepresented at all crime justice stages. The risk assessment algorithms used by police in law enforcement also have questionable integrity. For instance, these algorithms would rate a person at higher risk of reoffending because of their neighborhoods' high arrest and search rates. The main concern with risk assessment algorithms is that they do not consider that people in underprivileged neighborhoods are profiled ( Lattner, 2020 , p.13 ) . For example, these algorithms do not consider the heavy deployment of victims in the underprivileged communities will lead to higher arrests than in areas with the light deployment of the police. A classic example of the flawed algorithm is the ProPublica, which established that Afro- American defendants within Broward, Florida, are twice at the risk of reoffending than white offenders. In addition, this tool incorrectly underestimated the rate at which white defendants will commit crimes (Sebly, 2021, June 17). Hence, this tool shows the biases that Afro-American defendants encounter when dealing with the criminal system. The facial recognition tools have come under sharp criticism for permeating open discrimination and overrepresentation of people of color. Available studies established that facial

Your preview ends here

Eager to read complete document? Join bartleby learn and gain access to the full version

Access to all documents
Unlimited textbook solutions
24/7 expert homework help

10 recognition software was relatively unsuccessful in recognizing the faces of white male suspects but wrongly identified Afro-American and Asian-American male suspects (Kovera, 2019, p.1144; Lopez‐Aguado, 2016, p.16). The risk of misidentifying black and Asian males faces was ten times and 100 times higher than white faces misidentified (Sebly, 2021, June 17). The facial recognition tools also have a problem identifying female suspects' faces. Incidents of Afro- American persons wrongly misidentified and incarcerated are prevalent. If misidentified persons cannot defend themselves, they are wrongful for crimes they did not commit. Despite the flawless of these predictive technologies, the USA is yet to establish a legal framework to guide the law enforcers on using predictive technologies (Kovera, 2019, p.1144). The lack of a well-defined legal framework to guide the application of predictive technologies, including facial recognition and crime prediction software, implies that police will continue using biased tools in crime interventions (Lopez‐Aguado, 2016, p.16). However, the evidence exposing the flaws with these predictive systems should guide why the government should establish the guide or ban the technology-based policing tools. Unconscious Bias in Sentencing, Charging, and Appling Capital Sentences Unconscious and explicit biases do not just come into play in policing. The unconscious bias and charging decisions can influence trial and charging decisions (Sebly, 2021, June 17). National Exonerations Registry reveals that Afro-Americans are about seven times before charged with murder and condemned to death than European Americans. In addition, prosecutors show more bias openly when charging Afro-Americans with serious crimes than when charging Caucasian Americans (Hinton & Reed, 2018, p.8). Besides, prosecutors pile more pressure on blacks than whites using coercive means to admit to serious criminal charges (Lopez‐Aguado,

11 2016, p.16). Therefore, various coercive means, including waterboarding, intimidation, rape, beatings, and castration police, force the arrested persons to confess to charges. The prosecutors and police are not allowed to favor Caucasians and ostracize Afro- Americans. The judges often implement harsher punishments for Afro-Americans. According to a recent survey, black people will be punished harsher than Caucasians for similar criminal offenses (Lopez‐Aguado, 2016, p.16). The capital sentences also unfairly threaten Afro- Americans. Historically, judges have disproportionately sentenced Afro-Americans to death, including the risk of death of wrongly convicted Afro-Americans (Hinton & Reed, 2018, p.8). Reports indicate that Afro-American people accused of murdering Caucasians are 17 times more likely to be condemned to death than if the victim was black (Kovera, 2019, p.1144). Such flaws show that the white-dominated society hardly values black people's lives. The Extreme Poverty Affecting People of Color As briefly mentioned earlier, poverty relates to the disparate representation of racial minorities across the criminal justice stages. The slavery legacy and racist laws or policymaking ingrained in American society have a lasting impact on the overrepresentation of blacks in the criminal justice system (Bryant‐Davis et al., 2017, p.860). After the slavery ban, various practices and events such as discriminatory housing programs, de-industrialization of locations populated by Afro-Americans, and flight of the Caucasians from the zoned areas for the Africans pushed many Afro-Americans into poverty (Lopez‐Aguado, 2016, p.16). Most of the neighborhoods populated by Afro-Americans may have social-economic disadvantages, including a lack of human housing facilities and limited access to quality jobs and education.

12 The above conditions are structural realities that describe urban poverty and are leading causes of crimes, especially in informal settlements. Overwhelming evidence has found that urban neighborhoods inhabited by low-income households encounter significantly higher crime rates than well-to-do neighborhoods (Bryant‐Davis et al., 2017, p.860). According to research, Caucasians in impoverished neighborhoods are more prone than Afro-Americans to perpetrate violent crimes (Lattner, 2020, p.13). Whites in low-income communities, for example, are more likely than Afro-Americans to commit homicide and other offenses, yet black people have higher arrest rates per capita. As a result, this demonstrates that the criminal justice system has systemic faults that must be rectified. Moreover, the unjust does not just affect the defendants but communities and families. Many black people are being unfairly targeted in arrest and incarceration, and Afro-American communities suffer (Gross, Possley, & Stephens, 2017, p.734). For instance, the sole breadwinners' conviction depletes social-economic capital within families and communities. As a result, this pushes the racially ostracized groups into poverty and affects their social lives. One major implication is that convictions break down the families socially, emotionally, and culturally, including school. Research reveals that 25% of Afro-American youths have lived without one of their parents (Hinton & Reed, 2018, p.10). A parent's conviction is the main driver youths live without a parent. A parental figure is highly critical for healthy development. Therefore, this may also illuminate the unequal overrepresentation of black people with behavioral health problems. Disparities in convictions and incarceration impact families and women. Undoubtedly, males account for the biggest groups of incarcerated and convicted people. As a result, this leaves women to raise families and children single-handedly. Hence, this has led to higher

Your preview ends here

Eager to read complete document? Join bartleby learn and gain access to the full version

Access to all documents
Unlimited textbook solutions
24/7 expert homework help

13 single-parent families among black communities than among Caucasians (Hinton & Reeds, 2018, p.10). Families with single parents struggle financially, especially if a parent does not have a stable job. The cardiovascular health of women with incarcerated spouses also suffers significantly. Incarceration also comes with adverse social-economic ramifications. For example, incarcerated people become profile, limiting their employability even when they meet all other qualifications. For example, employers conduct background checks of job candidates to screen for their criminal history. Hence, this aggravates cycles of poverty among incarcerated individuals. In addition, persons that have been incarcerated struggle to reintegrate into the community. Unregulated Databases Entrap Innocent Individuals Police may use data-based surveillance methods, including DNA and gang databases, to identify leads (Roth, 2016, p.737). However, many people added to the profiled databases are innocent and victims of unfair discretion by law enforcement officers. The criteria used to include people in the profiled database varies across jurisdictions (Sebly, 2021, June 17). Sometimes, the police may include people in the databases based on their phenotypic features and tattoos. In addition, police may add innocent people to the profiled databases based on their clothes, the music they sing, and past arrests of their friends and family members (Graham et al., 2020, p.555). Such skewed aspects of including people’s details in these databases lead to unfairness in executing justice. Sadly, blacks and Hispanics are overrepresented in the profiled databases by the police. Statistics reveal that blacks account for 64% of those in the gang databases in Portland. Similar

14 reports indicate that people of color represented 95% of the people included in the criminal gangs. In New York City, people of color represented 99% of those profiled in the criminal databases (Sebly, 2021, June 17). Such figures are alarming because people of color, including Afro-Americans and Hispanics, are below 35% of the U.S. population. The lack of a legal framework for profiling and listing people in the gang database contributes to the unfair profiling of innocent people (Hunt, 2017, p.88). There is also little transparency when profiled people in the crime database. Research reveals that most people whose details are in the gang database do not know whether they have been listed in the database (Sebly, 2021, June 17). Therefore, this leads to ill-informed leads. Various cases may demystify this issue. A prime case to explain this issue is the arrest of 120 youths believed to be gang members in Bronx, New York, for gang-related crimes who turned out to be innocent and non- gang members. Moreover, law enforcers use unregulated DNA databases using investigative systems such as sweeping during the investigative processes (Roth, 2016, p.737). Such systems are surrounded by mystery and secrecy, entrapping innocent people. Hence, this leads to a conviction and harsh sentences for innocent people. In New York City, the DNA databases profile children aged below 12 years, individuals that police have never charged with any crime, and innocent people of racial minorities (Sebly, 2021, June 17). Therefore, this shows that police aimed at profiling and targeting certain groups of people based on their demographic profile, especially race. The government should establish a legal framework surrounding the collection and using the information in the DNA databases. In this legislation, the government should define the standards that police must follow when profiling anybody (Sebly, 2021, June 17). However,

15 legislation is not enough. The oversight by an independent body over databases used to provide leads will be important. In addition, courts must disallow evidence obtained from unregulated databases ( Lattner, 2020 , p.13 ) . Such practices will reduce the risk of innocent people facing the wrath of the law. Race Influence Discretionary Parole Parole is a lenient method whereby the prison releases an inmate before completing a custodian sentence after demonstrating positive progress towards behavioral change. Caucasians enjoy the significantly higher privilege of being released under parole than the minority races in the USA. The access to more lenient or reduced sentences by Caucasians have led incarcerated people of color to stay for the prolonged durations in the prisons without access to more lenient options (Hunt, 2017, p.88). Therefore, it is right to fault the correction systems for considering racial factors in their duties. The research has revealed that collateral damage caused to people of people during incarceration is more severe than for incarcerated Caucasians. A prime example explaining this involves the higher struggles black people take to reintegrate into the community. According to a recent sentencing report, Afro-American men that served in the prisons find it difficult to reintegrate into the community (Roth, 2016, p.737). Therefore, this shows the unequal treatment of black people in correction facilities. It also shows the stricter standards applied to people of color than Caucasians. In addition, black people face greater challenges in improving their lives after incarceration (Roth, 2016, p.737). For example, black people encounter greater challenges in accessing housing or unemployment benefits after leaving prisons, hindering them from coping with life and enjoying

Your preview ends here

Eager to read complete document? Join bartleby learn and gain access to the full version

Access to all documents
Unlimited textbook solutions
24/7 expert homework help

16 a high quality of life. Hence, the correction facilities should reform their correctional standards to help people live healthier lives. 3. Conclusion It is doubtless that the American criminal justice is flawed because of the endemic racism that victimizes blacks over other racial communities. In conclusion, disparate treatment of Afro-Americans, leading to wrongful conviction, stems from the dark history of racism against blacks. The unequal and unjust overrepresentation of blacks at all decision-making stages, including arrests, juror selection, prosecution, trial, and conviction representation, shows the continued racism and discrimination of racial minorities. The acquisition of more black people per capita confirms that American justice is unequal and unfairly targets the blacks. As mentioned earlier, Afro-Americans represented nearly half of all people acquitted after wrongful conviction despite black people representing about 13% of the country’s population. The high- profile events, including unceremonious murders of Afro-American men from George Floyd to Michael Brown, Eric Garner to Laquan McDonald, and Tamir Rice to Walter Scott, have exposed the flaws in the American justice system. Such cases and many other under-reported or unreported incidences have shown that the American justice system is skewed and works to the detriment of the black communities. In addition, this shows that the American CJS is subjective, flawed, and needs reforms to serve the needs of all Americans. The study above reflects how racism has led to flawed justice practices in the USA. According to the research, law enforcers are a pathway to the discriminatory CJS. In addition, skewed jury selection and implicit/explicit bias in criminal justice decision-making by system actors (judges, prosecutors, and juries) hinder justice from being dispensed to black people and other people of color. The negative effects of this discrimination are well-documented. One

17 major impact is that discriminatory CJS helps sustain cycles of poverty and inequality in society, with black people being the most disadvantaged. Incarceration and convictions break families, communities, and social structures. For example, single parenthood has grown within the black community because of the racial targeting of blacks in incarceration. The lack of one parental figure also hurts children's psychosocial and physical development. Hence, this describes why children whose parents are incarcerated experience developmental and behavioral issues. The list of the negative implications of incarceration on families and communities is endless.

18 References Bryant‐Davis, T., Adams, T., Alejandre, A., & Gray, A. A. (2017). The trauma lens of police violence against racial and ethnic minorities. Journal of Social Issues , 73 (4), 852-871. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12251 Graham, A., Haner, M., Sloan, M. M., Cullen, F. T., Kulig, T. C., & Jonson, C. L. (2020). Race and worrying about police brutality: The hidden injuries of minority status in America. Victims & Offenders , 15 (5), 549-573. https://doi.org/10.1080/15564886.2020.1767252 Gross, S. R., Possley, M., & Stephens, K. (2017). Race and wrongful convictions in the United States. https://repository.law.umich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi? article=2882&context=articles Hinton, E., Henderson, L., & Reed, C. (2018). An unjust burden: The disparate treatment of black Americans in the criminal justice system. Vera Institute of Justice , 1-20. https://www.vera.org/downloads/publications/for-the-record-unjust-burden-racial- disparities.pdf Hunt, J. S. (2017). Studying the effects of race, ethnicity, and culture on jury behavior. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000026-005 Kovera, M. B. (2019). Racial disparities in the criminal justice system: Prevalence, causes, and a search for solutions. Journal of Social Issues , 75 (4), 1139-1164. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12355 Lattner, E. J. (2020). Perceived Black Criminality and its Impact on Contributors to Wrongful Convictions in Cases of African American Men (Doctoral dissertation, Ohio University).

Your preview ends here

Eager to read complete document? Join bartleby learn and gain access to the full version

Access to all documents
Unlimited textbook solutions
24/7 expert homework help

19 https://etd.ohiolink.edu/apexprod/rws_etd/send_file/send? accession=ohiou1596562489583628&disposition=inline Lopez‐Aguado, P. (2016). The collateral consequences of prisonization: Racial sorting, carceral identity, and community criminalization. Sociology Compass , 10 (1), 12-23. https://doi.org/10.1111/soc4.12342 Roth, J. A. (2016). Informant witnesses and the risk of wrongful convictions. Am. Crim. L. Rev. , 53 , 737. https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/amcrimlr53&div=27&id= &page= Selby, D. (2021, June 17). How Racial Bias Contributes to Wrongful Conviction. https://innocenceproject.org/how-racial-bias-contributes-to-wrongful-conviction/ The Sentencing Project. (2018). Report to the United Nations on Racial Disparities in the U.S. Criminal Justice System. Retrieved from https://www.sentencingproject.org/publications/un-report-on-racial-disparities/ Wbur. (2016). After 9 High-Profile Police-Involved Deaths Of African-Americans, What Happened To The Officers? https://www.wbur.org/hereandnow/2016/07/11/america- police-shooting-timeline

M#224907087 Factors That Contribute To Wrongful Convictions In American Criminal Justice 2022

Related Documents