CPSY102 - 20

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CPSY102 – 20 Discriminative Stimulus o Discriminative stimulus (S d) is any stimulus that signals the presence of reinforcement Extinction o In operant conditioning, extinction occurs when we stop delivering reinforcement to a previously reinforced behaviour o Gradually, this behaviour declines in frequency and disappears Stimulus Discrimination Stimulus Generalization Schedules of Reinforcement o Skinner found that animals’ behaviours differ depending on the schedule of reinforcement – the pattern of delivering reinforcement o In the simplest pattern, continuous reinforcement, we reinforce a behaviour every time it occurs o Partial reinforcement, sometimes called intermittent reinforcement, occurs when we reinforce responses only some of the time o Skinner’s principle of partial reinforcement shows that our common-place intuitions about reinforcement are backward o According to the principle of partial reinforcement, behaviours we reinforce only occasionally are slower to extinguish than those we reinforce continuously, that is, every time o Skinner noted that continuous reinforcement allows animals to learn new behaviours more quickly, but that partial reinforcement leads to a greater resistance to extinction o This principle of partial reinforcement may help to explain why some people remain trapped for years in terribly dysfunctional, even abusive, relationships 1. The consistency of administering reinforcement: Some reinforcement contingencies are fixed , whereas others are variable . That is, in some cases experimenters provide reinforcement on a regular (fixed) basis, whereas in others they provide reinforcement on an irregular (variable) basis. 2. The basis of administering reinforcement : Some reinforcement schedules operate on ratio schedules, whereas others operate on interval schedules. In ratio schedules, the experimenter reinforces the animal based on the number of responses it’s emits. In interval schedules, the experimenter reinforces the animal based on the amount of time elapsed since the last reinforcement 1. In a fixed ratio (FR) schedule, we provide reinforcement after a regular number of responses 2. In a fixed interval (FI) schedule, we provide reinforcement for the first response after a specified amount of time has passed

3. In a variable ratio (VR) schedule, we provide reinforcement for a variable number of responses, with the number varying randomly around some average 4. In a variable interval (VI) schedule, we provide reinforcement for the first response after a variable time interval, with the actual intervals varying randomly around some average Module 5 Questions Absolute Threshold - Vision: What is the smallest amount of light that you can detect 50% of the time? o The average absolute threshold for vision is a candle seen at 50km on a dark clear night - Hearing: What is the smallest intensity of a sound that you can detect 50% of the time? o The tick of a watch at 6 metres under quiet conditions - Taste: What is the smallest amount of flavour that you can detect 50% of the time? o One teaspoon of sugar in approximately 7.5 litres of water - Smell: What is the smallest concentration of a scent that you can detect 50% of the time? o One drop of perfume diffused in the entire volume of a large apartment - Touch: What is the faintest touch that you can detect 50% of the time? o The wing of a bee falling on your cheek from a distance of 1cm Trichromatic Theory - The cone photoreceptors in the retina found specifically at the site of the fovea are responsible for perceiving colour. According to the Trichromatic theory, there are three types of cones. Each type of cone responds best to a particular wavelength. One type responds to blue light, the second responds to green light, and the last responds to red light. The other colours are perceived by activating more than one type of cone and mixing the signal from those cones. For example, yellow wavelengths would activate the green and red cones. The corresponding signal would be perceived as yellow. If you break down the name of the theory, “tri” means three and “chromatic” means relating to colour, hence the name of the theory. Opponent Process Theory - This theory also states there are three types of cones. However, instead of each type of cone being attuned to one colour, each type of cone is attuned to two different colours. One type is attuned to blue and yellow, the second is attuned to red and green, and the last one is attuned to black and white. Dual Process Theory - The current view of colour vision is the Dual Process Theory , which combines elements of the Trichromatic Theory and the Opponent Process Theory. According to the Dual Process Theory, the cones operate as described in the Trichromatic Theory responding to blue, green, and red light. The output of the cones triggers the opponent process in ganglion cells found in the retina and visual relay. Consequently, there are ganglion cells that respond to red-green, others to blue-yellow, and others to white-black. Myopia - Myopia is better known as nearsightedness. If you have myopia, you have difficulty seeing objects in the distance. The lens focuses light in front of the retina rather than on the retina. Myopia can be diagnosed using a Snellen chart (see figure 5. 3). If you have myopia, you need to wear glasses to drive, watch a movie in the theatre, and so on.

Hyperopia - Hyperopia is better known as farsightedness. If you have hyperopia, you have difficulty seeing up close. The lens focuses light behind the retina rather than directly on it. Optometrists usually diagnose hyperopia by having you read a text up close to your face. If you have hyperopia, you need to wear glasses to read. Presbyopia - Presbyopia is similar to hyperopia. The issue is difficulty seeing up close objects. However, presbyopia is associated with aging. In your mid to late 40s, the lenses of your eyes are not able to accommodate as well as they did in your youth. The result is presbyopia which will require reading classes to compensate. Grapheme-Colour Synesthesia - Letters, syllables, and/or words taken on consistent colour associations. When you are reading this sentence, the letters and words all appear in black font. Someone with grapheme-colour synesthesia will see the sentence in a variety of colours. Specific letters, syllables, and words will appear in various colours. For example, they might see the word “reading” in red and the word “sentence” in purple. Every time they see or hear those words, they appear in those same colours. Grapheme-colour synesthesia is the most common type of synesthesia. Sound-Colour Synesthesia - As the name suggested, sounds evoke the perception of colour. For example, when they hear the siren of a firetruck that might evoke the perception of the colour red. Lexical-Gustatory Synesthesia - Words and phonemes evoke tastes in the mouth. For example, the word “mouth” may evoke the taste of chocolate. The word “module” may evoke the taste of broccoli. Consequently, if you have this form of synesthesia, it is in your best interest to marry someone whose name evokes a pleasant taste. 1. All five senses are fully developed at birth a. False. Only taste, smell, and touch are fully developed at birth 2. A true negative in signal detection theory is also known as a miss a. False. A true negative is also known as a correct rejection. A false negative is also known as a miss 3. The dependent variable is manipulated by the experimenter a. False. The independent variable is manipulated by the experimenter 4. A Snellen chart can be used to diagnose myopia a. True. A Snellen chart is used to determine how well you can see objects from a distance 5. Absolute thresholds follow Weber’s Law a. False. Weber’s Law applies to Just Noticeable Difference thresholds 6. The range of visible light for humans are wavelengths from 400 to 700 nanometers a. True. At the 400 level is the colour violet and at the 700 level is the colour red 7. If you have typical colour vision, you are a trichromat a. True. Typical colour vision involves the red-green system, the blue-yellow system, and the white-black system 8. Perception is the process of interpreting and organizing the information you received through sensation

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a. True. Perception occurs after you receive information from your sensory receptors.

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