Curriculum Change Plan Part 2 - Philosophies and Models for Change

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PHILOSOPHIES AND MODELS FOR CHANGE 1 Curriculum Change Plan: Part 2 - Philosophies and Models for Change Angela J Tippett School of Education, Liberty University Author Note Angela J Tippett I have no known conflict of interest to disclose. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Angela J Tippett Email: ajtippett@liberty.edu

PHILOSOPHIES AND MODELS FOR CHANGE 2 Curriculum Philosophies or Models There are many models of curriculum development which have varying degrees of impact on current curriculum development. Many of these models are based on concepts found in various philosophies of education which were prevalent in decades past. One such model of curriculum development is Tyler’s Model for Curriculum Development. First outlined in Ralph W. Tyler’s book, Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction (1949), this model of development centers around the interests and needs of the students, prominent thoughts and theories of society, and key points of the subject matter which need to be delivered to the student (Gordon et al., 2019). Once all these objectives and needs were gathered, they would then be filtered through the school’s value system to determine what objectives fit within the realm of the school and the teacher’s core values and beliefs (Tyler & Hlebowitsh, 2013). Next, they would be filtered through a psychological lens to sift out what was truly important for instruction and what was age appropriate for the students. Once the list of objectives was of manageable size, learning material, and instruction methodology would be assessed as to how best to disseminate this information to the students and assess for their learning (Tyler & Hlebowitsh, 2013). While this is not the predominant method of curriculum development in many areas of education currently, the concept of engaging stakeholders as key partners in curriculum development and design is still commonplace in today’s educational arena (Sklar, 2018). This form of deductive development is very practical in core subjects, such as math and science, where broad topics can be narrowed to suit not only the learner but different age groups of learners as well. The Gordon Taylor Model of Curriculum System Development takes a different approach to curriculum development, focusing on every part of the curriculum or external factors which influence the curriculum, based on the idea that each influence has a unique impact.

PHILOSOPHIES AND MODELS FOR CHANGE 3 According to Gordon et al. (2019, 103), “A curricular system blends the entire process of curriculum development, including a feedback loop, into one model as a holistic approach that is more impactful than as individual components.” This model is useful in today’s educational world which revolves around common core state standards and data-driven decision making. As a deductive model, the system begins with a set of educational standards, either ones already developed, or ones determined by those entities attempting to develop a curriculum based on such standards (Gordon et al., 2019). These standards are organized into a logical K-12 progression, curriculum objectives are written, and then student evaluations and assessments are determined. Curriculum guides can now be written based on these objectives and standards, allowing professional development to be delivered to the team expected to implement this new curriculum. Following training, the new curriculum is implemented, careful data and observations are collected, and finally, the curriculum is evaluated using this information, allowing effective review and revision to take place. This becomes an annual cycle by which to analyze the data and keep the curriculum relative and current (Gordon et al., 2019). Even before curriculum development, educational philosophies made an impact on educators, and the world of education at large. One such philosophy which has brought about significant educational reform is the progressive school of thought and progressive philosophy of education (Do, 2022). Emerging during the later part of the nineteenth century, from the minds of philosophers such as John Dewey, progressivism is a child, or learner-centered philosophy that embraces the whole child, body, mind, and spirit (Matusov, 2022). Different from conventional instruction, progressive thought supports that learning is not about facts or rote memorization, but about learning experiences based on the needs and interests of the learner (Gordon et al., 2019). According to Gordon et al. (2019, 122-123), “Teachers influenced by progressive thinking see themselves as counselors to students and facilitators of learning, rather

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PHILOSOPHIES AND MODELS FOR CHANGE 4 than expounders of subject matter.”. Personal growth, according to progressive philosophy, is far more important than standardized benchmarks or national standards needing to be met (Do, 2022; Gordon et al., 2019). The scientific method is the learning model used by progressive educators, teaching the learner to explore their world and learn about their interests (Gordon et al., 2019). Focus Philosophy or Model Tyler’s Model of Curriculum Development most closely aligns with the method of curriculum revision being used to change the 6th-grade math curriculum in a small Christian school. Tyler supported a method of curriculum development which required objectives to be formulated based on feedback and data collection from stakeholders, namely students, as well as trends in society which might be affecting the lives and communities of these students, and a third source, the subject matter to be taught. In a similar fashion, the curriculum change plan being developed for middle school math requires input from stakeholders, from students and teachers to administration and families, or the community of the students. One of the key components of Tyler’s model included a philosophical screen which requires developers to look at the school and community’s values and make certain that the curriculum fit within those social and educational confines. The curriculum must afford an opportunity for all students to find it accessible and allow for widespread participation (Tyler & Hlebowitsh, 2013). In line with Tyler’s philosophy, the curriculum change plan for 6 th -grade math includes a review of all materials to make certain that it is accessible to all students, regardless of socioeconomic status, level of readiness, or learning differences. Finally, Tyler’s model includes, within the psychological screening, a review of the amount of time necessary to convey the material, for students to obtain the material, and how

PHILOSOPHIES AND MODELS FOR CHANGE 5 much effort will be required for those things to occur (Gordon et al., 2019). It is important in any curriculum to understand the appropriate amount of information a group of students can retain at a given age in a specified length of time. Without analyzing this information, lessons, and instruction could become very ineffective. Similarly, in the curriculum change plan for 6 th - grade math, materials must be analyzed and delivered in such a way as to maximize learning without exceeding the allotted time of instruction. Otherwise, all the necessary information will not be delivered to students, and they will be unprepared for the next phase of math instruction the following year. Values and Hidden/Implied Curriculum Values can be taught, or conveyed, in a multitude of ways. Sometimes the opportunity arises during the lesson, and teachers are able to speak the truth into a situation, allowing for those values which apply to the situation to be emphasized and reinforced. Other times, these values and ideals are conveyed through teacher attitudes, school expectations, and hidden, or implied, curriculum. According to Park et al. (2023, 289), “The hidden curriculum has been defined as teaching and learning that occur outside the formal curriculum and includes the knowledge, skills, attitudes, behaviors, values, and beliefs that students consciously or subconsciously acquire and accept.”. It goes without saying, these implications can be for the good or to the detriment of the students. In some cases, the implied curriculum comes in the form of cultural norms for groups of learners, such as medical students, who absorb the culture of the world in which they work, and professional nuances are gained through experience (Park et al., 2023). In other cases, it is a school expectation that creates a divide in culture or discriminates against a certain group of students, such as migrant worker’s children who cannot necessarily speak English or know how

PHILOSOPHIES AND MODELS FOR CHANGE 6 to advocate for themselves, even though this is the school expectation (Brezicha & Miranda, 2022). While it is not explicitly stated, this type of cultural expectation causes students to miss many learning opportunities and prevents them from escaping the cycle of migrant workers in America. Many studies report that the hidden curriculum has a great impact on the values and attitudes of students, conveying cultural appropriateness, integrity, and expected higher academic achievement (Raissi Ahvan, 2021). A teacher can convey many things through how they react to situations, how they hold students accountable for academic progress, and classroom discipline. All of these things can have a powerful positive influence on students in a school setting. Modeling and requiring appropriate behavior is a very clearly implied curriculum in every classroom. While it may appear insignificant, many things in a 6 th -grade math curriculum can be used to convey values and be taught through an implied curriculum. Prior experiences in math classes have many times turned students against mathematics and made them leery of any new math curriculum. How the teacher handles their instructional attitude can have a profound impact on how students react to the material. If a teacher truly enjoys what they are teaching, the students will be more inclined to pay attention, participate, and learn to enjoy the subject as well. In the planned curriculum change, part of the professional development for teachers will be to show various ways energy and creativity can be interjected into the instructional time to boost students’ interest and create more enthusiasm about the mathematical learning experience. In a similar way, students know if they are loved and cared for by their teachers. This makes a great deal of difference in the classroom atmosphere and behavior of the students. Christ modeled this instructional method for us in scripture. He ate with sinners, talked with

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PHILOSOPHIES AND MODELS FOR CHANGE 7 those that no one else would associate with, and spent time with those that others ignored. He conveyed the truth of the gospel not only with His words but with His actions and how He conducted Himself. In Luke 10:5-7 ( ESV Bible , 2001), Christ encountered Zacchaeus and joined him for a meal. People were less than pleased that Christ would eat with such a sinner as a publican. Christ was not at all concerned about their opinions. He was showing love to everyone, not just those who were righteous in the sight of man. Another instance where Christ taught through His actions, not just His words, He spent time with a Samaritan woman at the well in Samaria. In John 4 ( ESV Bible , 2001), Jesus had a conversation with a Samaritan woman who had been divorced 5 times. He was associating, as a Jew, with an outcast among outcasts. She was both a Samaritan and a divorced woman. Neither Jew nor Samaritan would associate with her, but He had no concern for social conventions. In verse 9 ( ESV Bible , 2001), “ The Samaritan woman said to him, “You are a Jew and I am a Samaritan woman. How can you ask me for a drink?” (For Jews do not associate with Samaritans.” He witnessed to her about His mission from God, that He was the Messiah, and she believed. Just as Christ did, teachers can make an impact on their students in how they model kindness and concern for their students. Not only will students feel loved and respected, but they will see that all receive the same treatment, encouraging them to follow the same model. This is perhaps the greatest hidden curriculum that can be taught in every classroom in America, regardless of societal norms and constraints.

PHILOSOPHIES AND MODELS FOR CHANGE 8 References Brezicha, K. F., & Miranda, C. P. (2022). Actions speak louder than words: Examining school practices that support immigrant students’ feelings of belonging. Equity & Excellence in Education, 55 (1-2), 133-147. https://doi.org/10.1080/10665684.2021.2021633 Do, T. (2022). Progressive education: Views from John Dewey’s education philosophy. Imastutʻyun, 4 (3), 22-31. https://doi.org/10.24234/wisdom.v4i3.907 Durlak, J. A. (2017). The fundamental importance of effective program implementation for successful character development. Journal of Character Education, 13 (2), 1-11. English Standard Version Bible . (2001). https://www.esv.org/ Gordon W., Oliva P. F., & Taylor R. (2019). Developing the curriculum: improved outcomes through systems approaches (9 th ). Pearson. Matusov, E. (2022). Progressive education is the opium of the educators. Integrative Psychological & Behavioral Science, 56 (4), 829-862. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12124-021- 09610-2 Park, S. K., Chen, A. M. H., Daugherty, K. K., Frankart, L. M., & Koenig, R. A. (2023). A scoping review of the hidden curriculum in pharmacy education. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 87 (3), 289-290. https://doi.org/10.5688/ajpe8999 Raissi Ahvan, Y. (2021). Effectiveness of the hidden curriculum on affective attitudes of high school students toward learning. Journal of Research & Health, 11 (6), 423- 434. https://doi.org/10.32598/JRH.11.6.1925.1

PHILOSOPHIES AND MODELS FOR CHANGE 9 Sklar, D. P. (2018). Implementing curriculum change: Choosing strategies, overcoming resistance, and embracing values. Academic Medicine, 93 (10), 1417- 1419. https://doi.org/10.1097/ACM.0000000000002350 Tyler, R. W., & Hlebowitsh, P. S. (2013). Basic principles of curriculum and instruction . The University of Chicago Press.

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