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Notes: Chapter 11 – Judging Scientific Theories
What Science Is and Is Not
Science is the careful, systematic search for __knowledge______ and __understanding_____ of reality through the formulation, testing, and evaluation of __theories_______. It has proven itself through the centuries to be the most powerful tool we have for uncovering truths about the world and distinguishing between what is real and what is not. It has been __successful______ in helping us acquire knowledge because it methodically guards
against the ___common biases_____ and ___prejudices______ of the human mind, resists __partisan pressure__ and _____popular opinion______, accepts nothing on ___faith_________, and demands ____hard________ evidence and _____solid_________ reasons. Science embodies to a high degree what is essential to reliable knowing of empirical facts: systematic consideration of alternative solutions or theories, rigorous testing of them, and careful checking and rechecking of the conclusions.
Some would say that science is reliable because it is ____self-correcting____. Science does not grab hold of an explanation and never let go. Science is not ___dogma__________. Instead, it ____looks_____at alternative ways to explain a phenomenon, ___tests________ these alternatives, and opens up the ___conclusions_________ to criticism from scientists everywhere.
In your own words, explain why …
Science is not ideology: ___Science is not an ideology because it does not give any sort of faith or substance for practices and beliefs to be held upon__________________
Science is not motivated reasoning: ____Science cannot be motivated reasoning as the definition of motivated reasoning is to reason with the sole purpose to provide evidence for a predetermined idea. While people make theories and then test things to prove those theories they are testing based on the principle to show truth___________
The Scientific Method
In your own words, explain what each of the following steps of the scientific method
.
1.
Identify the problem or pose a question: _____This is the act of asking a question and going through why or why not something happens/occurs_________________
2.
Devise a hypothesis to explain the event or phenomenon: ___This is when a scientist proposes an explanation to the question that was just asked___________________
3.
Derive a test implication or prediction _____This is when a scientist finds a way to test whether or not the hypothesis they have proposed it true or not ____________________
4.
Perform a test: ____This is just as it sounds. After a test has been identified and planned it is carried out with precision. ____________
5.
Accept or reject the hypothesis: ______Based on what the test (or more likely tests) have revealed the scientist can then see if the hypothesis is true or not and it will be either accepted or rejected by the community_______________
In your own words, explain why a hypothesis can never be conclusively confirmed, or conclusively refuted. Further, explain why the above facts does not mean that all hypotheses are equally acceptable. (see the bottom
of page 240 for help.)
_______Not all hypotheses are equally acceptable for many reasons, these include that they could be made on false or unsteady foundations, they were not made without the intent for specific outcome, and many other reasons. Furthermore a hypothesis can never and will never be absolute even if proved right as information is ever evolving and ever changing. ______________
Judging Scientific Theories
Without looking back at the text, attempt to explain in your own words the criteria of adequacy we learned in Chapter 10 and are, also, how we judge between scientific theories/hypotheses.
Testability: ___this is seeing whether or not a theory is testable in means that show whether or not it is right or wrong________
Fruitfulness: ___This is when a theory has potential ______
Scope: ____When a theory has scope it is open and understandable_____
Simplicity: ___Theories that are over complicated oftentimes are worse than those that are far more simple________
Conservatism: ____This is when a theory goes along with, uses, and applies theories and ideas that have already
been proven to be right________
Select one of the two theories considered in the text (Copernicus Versus Ptolemy or Climate Change) and try to summarize the hypothesis selected as best via the TEST formula and why it is better than the other considered.
______In Copernicus Versus Ptolemy Copernicus’ theory was then accepted as the right and just theory because
of how he demonstrated the hypothesis, tested the hypothesis, and utilized logic and the information that was being discovered by other scientists at the time. First and foremost his hypothesis was simplistic and easily testable. This helped his theory because it was obvious through the tests to see why and how he was right and it
was simple enough so it would make sense to a wide audience. ____________
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