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A Growing Nation and Early Movements West The Early United States Among Native Nations
The Early US & Native Nations Quick Overview 1. Review: → From Revolution to Constitution → US among European Powers 2. Early United States in Context: → US among Indigenous States 3. Treaty-Making with Indigenous States
The Early US & Native Nations Week 10 Discussion Questions: 1. How did shifting state and national borders shape American diplomacy in the early national period? How were US-Indigenous relations shaped by shifting borders during this period? How did US-Indigenous relations shape these borders? 2. How were US-European relations shaped by shifting borders during the early national period? How did US- European relations shape these borders?
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The Early US & Native Nations Week 10 Discussion Questions: 3. How did US-Indigenous relations shift from the end of the American Revolution to the War of 1812 ? What were important institutional , cultural , economic , or other shifts? Why was there a rise of Indigenous nativism and spiritual resistance in the era between 1800 and 1812? → We’ll get to more of this question in our next lecture (along with Question 4). Discussion respondents, also look to Foner Ch 8 for more answers to questions #3 and #4
Early US: One of Many Empires & Nations Review: → From Revolution to Constitution → A New Nation Among Many Others: the Early US Among European Powers
New Map of North America, 1783
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The End of the Revolutionary War Treaty of Paris (1783): • Offered official recognition of United States as an independent nation by Britain • Ceded to US land between Canada and Florida (east of Mississippi River)
Post-Revolutionary American State-Building Treaty of Paris (1783): Peace terms only include European powers… → Fighting with many Indigenous nations will continue → Questions regarding territorial bounds and borders also not settled with Indigenous powers Looking ahead… US will face similar problems to those British Empire faced after 1763 Treaty of Paris
Revolutionary American State-Building The Articles of Confederation National government’s powers more about foreign/diplomatic affairs : • Declaring war • Making treaties with other governments NOTE: this applied only to EUROPEAN powers , not to treaties with INDIGENOUS nations. Both the national government & individual states treated with Indigenous nations in this era
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Revolutionary American State-Building The Articles of Confederation ALSO: MAJOR IMPLICATIONS FOR WESTERN LANDS • Congress took control of western lands and devised settlement rules • States with large land claims in the Ohio (e.g., VA) forced to cede those claims to national US government before Articles of Confed were ratified
Post-Revolutionary American State-Building Framing of the Constitution Strengthened national authority: • Exec power to enforce law, command military • Congress power to impose taxes, borrow money, regulate commerce, declare war, treat with Indigenous & foreign nations , promote ‘general welfare’ • States barred from printing own money, relieving debtors
Early United States in Context US & European Powers in Atlantic Perspective The Constitution & Ratification • Debates about sovereignty & systems of government part of Atlantic conversations (in Britain, Netherlands, France, and more) • Constitutional Convention was looking outward • So were the States and delegates sent to ratification conventions
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Early United States in Context US & European Powers in Atlantic Perspective Beyond the Constitution • US wants (and needs) to be taken seriously on the diplomatic stage • Not just about recognition of Independence…they need continued recognition for trade, security, future treaties • This was NOT a given
Early United States in Context US & European Powers in Continental Perspective Remember: US is not alone in North America: • Hugely important borders with British Canada, Spanish Florida, Spanish Louisiana… • Many of these borders would be contentious • Borders and geopolitics complicated further by Indigenous nations that straddle borders (e.g. Haudenosaunee around Great Lakes & St Lawrence)
Early United States in Context US & European Powers in Continental Perspective
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North America as Indigenous Territory Much of what was the “U.S.” was, in reality, still Indigenous sovereign land
North America as Indigenous Territory Much of what was the “U.S.” was, in reality, still Indigenous sovereign land 1790: Roughly 200,000 Indigenous Peoples lived east of the Mississippi
North America as Indigenous Territory Much of what was the “U.S.” was, in reality, still Indigenous sovereign land • This land had neither been sold nor ceded • Any expansion of the US state (or of individual states) would require treaties and/or forced dispossession • Treaties also necessary to end ongoing wars with Indigenous powers (some of this fighting was a continuation of the Revolutionary War)
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Revolutionary & Early National Borderlands Revolutionary War, Unfinished • Many Indigenous powers fought during the AmRev, both as American and British allies → Sometimes provoked civil wars within: e.g., Haudenosaunee Confederacy, Cherokee Confederacy • Widespread violence and fighting, deep into Indigenous lands (not simply the “coastal” war)
Revolutionary & Early National Borderlands Revolutionary War, Unfinished • American leaders even encouraged Indigenous extirpation campaigns, not only burning towns and crops, but attempting to destroy whole nations: e.g. the Sullivan Expedition against British-allied Haudenosaunee • Fighting & tensions along the edge of the American backcountry & Indigenous lands continued well after Treaty of Paris
Early United States & Indigenous Policy Indigenous diplomacy & treaties were central to the early American state: • Treaties to end wars & conflict • Treaties to gain allies (who might otherwise ally with the British or Spanish) • Treaties to define borders • Treaties to purchase/cede land
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Early United States & Indigenous Policy Indigenous diplomacy & treaties were central to the early American state: • Treaties to end wars & conflict • Treaties to gain allies (who might otherwise ally with the British or Spanish) • Treaties to define borders • Treaties to purchase/cede land REMEMBER… Nearly all treaties (whether with Native or European nations) include: 1.End of war or renewal of alliance 2.Recognition of sovereignty 3.Borders, cession, or exchange of land
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Early United States & Indigenous Policy Who had the right to treat with Indigenous nations & peoples? Before the Revolution: • From 1755 forward, only the British Imperial Government could make treaties • From 1763 forward, only the British Imperial Government could purchase land
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Early United States & Indigenous Policy Who had the right to treat with Indigenous nations & peoples? Revolutionary & Constitutional Period: • On British side: only imperial government • On American side: BOTH Continental Congress AND individual states simultaneously treating with Indigenous nations → sometimes these treaties conflicted
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Early United States & Indigenous Policy Who had the right to treat with Indigenous nations & peoples? Post Constitution: • ONLY the federal government could treat with Indigenous nations • Individuals and states barred from treating or purchasing land directly (unless that land was already ceded/purchased by the US, and thus had already become US sovereign territory)
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Early United States & Indigenous Policy 1789 & 1790 • Indigenous Affairs placed under the War Department • 1790 Trade & Intercourse Act Week 10 Canvas Readings: • Extracts: US-Indigenous Treaties • George Washington’s Memoranda on Indian Affairs, 1789 & 1790 Intercourse Act
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Early United States & Indigenous Policy The Constitution & Conceptions of Citizenship How did the definition of citizenship in the new republic exclude Indigenous Peoples (and African- Americans)? Constitution identified 3 groups: 1. “The People” (“We the People”) 2. “Other Persons,” or slaves 3. “Indians,” who were considered members of independent tribes, not part of American nation
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Early United States & Indigenous Policy The Constitution & Conceptions of Citizenship According to Constitution: • Indigenous Peoples belonged to tribes (or nations) • Indigenous tribes were independent, sovereign nations → treaty-system Reality: • Legal standing & implications more complicated — could an Indigenous individual be part of the US? • What about those who “assimilate into American society”?
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Early United States & “The West” “The West” • US government: Lands beyond state borders governed by national government • Congress established rules for settling this “domain” • Large numbers of white American migrated west of the Appalachians during and after the Revolutionary War → especially upstate NY, KY, TN • Arguments for “freedom” and land (many against British government from before the Revolution) continued
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Western Lands, 1782-1802
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The signing of the Treaty of Greenville of 1795 The Treaty of Greenville, 1795
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Treaties & Land Cessions, 1680s-1784
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Treaties & Land Cessions In the Early US
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Treaties & Land Cessions In the Early US https://www.arcgis.com/apps/webappviewer/index.html?id=eb6ca76e008543a89349ff2517db47e6
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Making Treaties with Indigenous Nations
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Making Treaties with Indigenous Nations Questions: → What did it look like to sign treaties with Indigenous nations? → Who was involved in treaty-making and diplomacy? → How did US-Indigenous treaties compare to British-Indigenous treaties? → How did US-Indigenous treaties compare to US-European treaties?
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Making Treaties with Indigenous Nations Case Example : Treaties made with the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) 1. British-Iroquois Treaty: Treaty of Fort Stanwix, 1768 2. US-Iroquois Treaty: Treaty of Canandaigua, 1794
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Treaty Conferences Making Treaties with Indigenous Nations
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Making Treaties with Indigenous Nations Treaty of Fort Stanwix, 1768
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Making Treaties with Indigenous Nations Treaty of Fort Stanwix, 1768 • Signed between the British imperial government & Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) • Remember the western boundary lines : This treaty decided new border between British- colonial & Indigenous territory; affirmed Haudenosaunee sovereign territory • Treaty also renewed British-Haudenosaunee alliance & peace
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Making Treaties with Indigenous Nations Treaty of Fort Stanwix, 1768 • Signed between the British imperial government & Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) • Remember the western boundary lines : This treaty decided new border between British- colonial & Indigenous territory; affirmed Haudenosaunee sovereign territory • Treaty also renewed British-Haudenosaunee alliance & peace REMEMBER… Nearly all treaties include : 1.End of war or renewal of alliance 2.Recognition of sovereignty 3.Borders, cession, or exchange of land
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The Time appointed for the Indians to meet at Fort Stanwix being the 20th of Septr Sr Wm Johnson arrived there on the 19th accompanied by the Governor of New Jersey and several other Gentlemen, with 20 Boats loaded with the Goods intended for the Present to be made by the Cession of Lands to the King. The Commissioners from Virginia were already there, and on the 21st arrived Lieutt Govr Penn with Commrs from Pensilvania & several other gentlemen … On the 29th some Delawares arrived from Muskingham who left the Shawanees at Fort Pitt on their way to Fort Stanwix … At the beginning of October, there were 800 Indians assembled & continued coming in dayly till after the Treaty was opened. … By the 22d there were 2200 Indians collected and several large Parties coming in the next day Treaty of Fort Stanwix, 1768
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Treaty of Fort Stanwix, 1768 Bretheren I take you by the hand and heartily bid you all welcome to this place where I have kindled a Council Fire for affairs of importance . … Both the Govr & Gentlemen Commrs as well as myself, having waited here a month … I hope therefore that you are now come fully prepared and with Hearts well inclined to the great business for which we are convened, and in order to prepare you the better for these purposes, I do now, agreeable to the antient custom establishd by our Forefathers, proceed to the ceremony of Condolence usual on these occasions
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Treaty of Fort Stanwix, 1768 And first: With this String of Wamp: I do, on behalf of His Majesty & all His subjects wipe away the Tears from your eyes which you are constantly shedding for your late deceased Cheifs, and I clear your sight that so you may look cheerfully at your Bretheren , who are come from Several of the Provinces to attend this General Congress ordered by His Majesty to be held by me; in order to settle some necessary points between him & you With this String I clear the Passage to your Hearts that you may speak cheerfully and candidly on the several subjects which, during this Congress, will be treated of , as well as to remove all sorrow & uneasiness from you With this last string I wipe away the blood of your friends from off your Births, that you may on your return rest with Peace and comfort on them Gave the 3 Strings
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Treaty of Fort Stanwix, 1768 Bretheren I am greatly concerned for the many losses you have sustained in your several Nations since our last meeting & sincerely condole with you for them all 1. A Belt. Brethren With this Belt I light up, anew your several Council Fires, that the Cheifs still remaining may upon all occasions sit comfortably by them and consult on the several matters, which may come before them. 2. A Belt … Brethren As I have by the former Belt kindled up your several Council Fires, I do now by this Belt desire, that you the Councillors will duly assemble, when the affairs of your nations require it, & then jealously apply yourselves to every measure which may tend to your Peace and Interest. A Belt
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“Their Belts of Wampum Bead [they explained] … was their Pen, Ink, and Paper”
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Making Treaties with Indigenous Nations Treaty of Canandaigua, 1794
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Making Treaties with Indigenous Nations Treaty of Canandaigua, 1794
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Making Treaties with Indigenous Nations Treaty of Canandaigua, 1794
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Making Treaties with Indigenous Nations Treaty of Canandaigua, 1794 • Signed between the US federal government & Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) • Treaty set border between US (NY) & Indigenous land; affirmed Haudenosaunee sovereign territory • Treaty also affirmed US-Haudenosaunee alliance & peace
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Making Treaties with Indigenous Nations Treaty of Canandaigua, 1794 • Signed between the US federal government & Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) • Treaty set border between US (NY) & Indigenous land; affirmed Haudenosaunee sovereign territory • Treaty also affirmed US-Haudenosaunee alliance & peace REMEMBER… Nearly all treaties include : 1.End of war or renewal of alliance 2.Recognition of sovereignty 3.Borders, cession, or exchange of land
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Treaty of Canandaigua, 1794 A Treaty Between the United States of America and the Tribes of Indians Called the Six Nations: The President of the United States having determined to hold a conference with the Six Nations of Indians for the purpose of removing from their minds all causes of complaint, and establishing a firm and permanent friendship with them ; and Timothy Pickering being appointed sole agent for that purpose; and the agent having met and conferred with the sachems and warriors of the Six Nations in general council: Now, in order to accomplish the good design of this conference, the parties have agreed on the following articles , which, when ratified by the President, with the advice and consent of the Senate of the United States , shall be binding on them and the Six Nations…
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ARTICLE 1. Peace and friendship are hereby firmly established, and shall be perpetual, between the United States and the Six Nations. ARTICLE 2. The United States acknowledge the lands reserved to the Oneida, Onondaga, and Cayuga Nations in their respective treaties with the State of New York, and called their reservations, to be their property; and the United States will never claim the same, nor disturb them , or either of the Six Nations, nor their Indian friends, residing thereon, and united with them in the free use and enjoyment thereof; but the said reservations shall remain theirs, until they choose to sell the same to the people of the United States, who have the right to purchase. … Treaty of Canandaigua, 1794
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ARTICLE 6. In consideration of the peace and friendship hereby established, and of the engagements entered into by the Six Nations; and because the United States desire, with humanity and kindness, to contribute to their comfortable support; and to render the peace and friendship hereby established strong and perpetual, the United States now deliver to the Six Nations, and the Indians of the other nations residing among them, a quantity of goods… ARTICLE 7. Lest the firm peace and friendship now established should be interrupted by the misconduct of individuals, the United States and the Six Nations agree, that for injuries done by individuals, on either side, no private revenge or retaliation shall take place; but, instead thereof, complaint shall be made by the party injured, to the other… and such prudent measures shall then be pursued, as shall be necessary to preserve or peace and friendship unbroken, until the Legislature (or Great Council) of the United States shall make other equitable provision for that purpose. Treaty of Canandaigua, 1794
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Treaty of Canandaigua, 1794
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Treaty of Canandaigua, 1794
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Treaty of Canandaigua, 1794
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Treaty of Canandaigua, 1794
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Treaty of Fort Stanwix, 1768 And first: With this String of Wamp: I do, on behalf of His Majesty & all His subjects wipe away the Tears from your eyes which you are constantly shedding for your late deceased Cheifs, and I clear your sight that so you may look cheerfully at your Bretheren , who are come from Several of the Provinces to attend this General Congress ordered by His Majesty to be held by me; in order to settle some necessary points between him & you With this String I clear the Passage to your Hearts that you may speak cheerfully and candidly on the several subjects which, during this Congress, will be treated of , as well as to remove all sorrow & uneasiness from you With this last string I wipe away the blood of your friends from off your Births, that you may on your return rest with Peace and comfort on them Gave the 3 Strings
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“ Behold the route that you must take to come and visit your friends …there are the lakes, there the rivers, there the mountains and valleys that must be passed; and there are the portages and waterfalls. Note everything, to the end that, in the visits we shall pay one another, no one may get lost. The roads will be easy now , and no more abuscades will be feared. All persons who are met will be so many friends.” --Treaty of Fort Stanwix, 1768
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Treaties & US- Indigenous Relations Indigenous diplomacy & treaties: Begin to see important shifts in the early republic • Change in language & symbolism of treaties → US gov. desire to make Indigenous treaties look more like European treaties • US government far less interested in recognizing Indigenous title → Expansionist impulses, changing geopolitical landscape, demographics, etc.
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Early United States Borderlands Next Lecture: Continue on US-Indigenous policy & diplomacy → Moving forward into the 19C: • Borderlands of tension & conflict • The Louisiana Purchase • War of 1812, Tecumseh’s War, & the Red Stick Wars
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