Impact of Academic Disparities Final
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THE IMPACT OF ACADEMIC DISPARITIES
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The Impact of Academic Disparities for Black-American Students on Standardized
Testing
Ijeoma Nwannunu
Department of Education, Liberty University
Author Note
Ijeoma Nwannunu
I have no conflict of interest to disclose
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Ijeoma Nwannunu.
Email: inwannunu1@liberty.edu
THE IMPACT OF ACADEMIC DISPARITIES
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Abstract
School districts and legislative policies for decades have implemented standard testing. Educators agree that it must correctly represent most students' educational environment. Even more concerning is that schools are becoming more desperate, and school staff is using various
methods to improve student performance on tests, some of which are unethical and dishonest. They are using ways to enhance performance dishonestly. There have been several stories of school districts getting caught cheating by supplying test information ahead of time. Schools may also control attendance on days when the test would be administered. To avoid this, formative evaluation techniques should be used more. Children from families roughly around the
poverty level are less likely to succeed compared to their wealthier counterparts. This paper will show how external and inevitable factors affect one's learning ability. Poverty is one mentioned factor. It is an inhibitor that may cause a delay in a student’s ability to learn. As Christians, we are taught to meet the needs of people where they are; people's needs (students') should be met at different points. Although standardized testing serves a particular purpose, its service of mass testing would not be the answer.
THE IMPACT OF ACADEMIC DISPARITIES
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The Impact of Academic Disparities for Black-American Students on Standardized
Testing
A standardized test requires all test takes to answer the same questions or a selection of
questions from a typical bank of questions in the same way. In addition, it is scored consistently, making it possible to compare the subjective performance of individuals or groups of students. (Standardized Test Definition, 2015). The decision of whether an assessment is standard or normalized may be skewed, and demographics, culture, or mental health should be taken into consideration. Students are influenced by their environment and prior experiences. This influence can affect response behavior and learning awareness, for example, avoiding a skunk, understanding that the cup of coffee may be hot, or reasoning between the cost of two types of bread. In addition, different cultures can develop character, mannerisms, and responses to learning. Therefore, learning is the process that leads to potential behavioral change. One learns as he or she modifies how they think about the environment, interpret the incoming provocations, and, therefore, how they interact or behave. (ALLPSYCH, 2023) If this is true, there should not be a standard method to assess student performance or academic intelligence. Standardized testing historically was created to have “good” intentions. However, It has become a way to systemically do away with the nature of logical thinking from the majority. It all began during the Progressive Era (Cunningham, J. 2019). The 1900s to the 1920s
was a time of extensive business expansion in the United States. Progressives attempted to try to behave responsibly through a plethora of rules. In addition, they tried to rectify city authorities’ corruption
and improve living conditions for residents who lived in poor areas. Many of them were immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe who had recently arrived. However, there is a different point of view. It is argued that during the Progressive Era, populations were penalized for not reforming to the dominant White race, and education was not excluded from this. Standardized testing was used to racialize school success. Progressives focused on the desire
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to be efficient and professional and became highly concerned with individual differences. The school performance and dropout rates of working-class immigrant students translated to concerns for the Progressives. It led to an emphasis on saving money and resources (Mehta, 2017). As concerns increased, so did the dropout rates. Intelligence Quotient (IQ) tests became the norm for tracking intelligence and were thought of as practical tools that assigned students to a curriculum appropriate for their intellectual ability. However, more recent research suggests these tests are culturally biased (Cunningham, J. 2019).
Then, standardized testing meets the Civil Rights era. Standardized testing continued to
marginalize groups of people of color. In 1966, the Coleman report found that education spending was cut to support low-income students. As the academic gap increased, the report revealed that differences in outcomes had much to do with the differences in family background and school resources (Mehta, 2017). These gave reason for more school spending. However, in
1970, President Nixon addressed education reform, stating that school results were different from the amount of money being spent. In other words, if the money being invested into equity programs and school resources did not make much of a difference, then school districts were wasting taxpayer dollars. As funds decreased, the use of standardized tests increased (Cunningham, J. 2019).
More recently, standardized tests have been said to be responsible for removing non-
conforming principles when the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act was introduced in 2002. “High-
stakes” testing was implemented and negatively impacted students of color (Cunningham, J. 2019). NCLB was a leading example of the damaging effects of rationalizing resources in schools. It took away federal funds from low-performing schools. In turn, parents began to withdraw their children from school. As the school enrollment declined, federal funding declined
as well. Thus, the lack of funding in low-income communities continues (Cunningham, J. 2019).
THE IMPACT OF ACADEMIC DISPARITIES
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Definitions of Key Terms
1.
Standardized Test- A standardized test is any test that requires all test takes to answer the same questions or a selection of questions from a typical bank of questions in the same way. (
Standardized Test Definition
, 2015)
2.
Learning- The process that leads to potential behavioral change. In other words, as we learn, we modify how we think about our environment, interpret the incoming provocations, and, therefore, how we interact or behave (ALLPSYCH, 2023)
3.
Socioeconomic- A combination of social and economic factors that indicate a child’s household income or opportunity (NAEP, n.d.)
4.
Fixed Mindset- The idea that characteristics are fixed and unchangeable (Yeager
& Dweck, 2020)
5.
Growth Mindset
- The idea that personal characteristics, such as intellectual abilities, can be developed (Yeager & Dweck, 2020)
THE IMPACT OF ACADEMIC DISPARITIES
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Related Literature
Status of Black American Students' Proficiency Scores
A factor that led to the problem of standardized testing was socioeconomic. As defined by the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP, n.d.), socioeconomic status is the combination of social and economic factors that indicate a child’s household income or opportunity (Bradley, 2022). On average, Black children enter school with more poorly developed literacy and math skills (Henry et al., 2020). This plays a vital role in standardized test performance. Students from these disadvantaged backgrounds are more likely to have limited access to high-quality educational resources (Henry et al., 2020). This shows the comparison of the Black and White student achievement gap among United States students begins in kindergarten and continues to grow through middle school. Undoubtedly, Black students in various communities are testing on or above grade level. However, once again, socioeconomic status results from lagging academic levels, which differs between Black and White children. Specifically, educational gaps tend to become narrow at higher income levels but grow at higher parental education levels. Despite how students perform in kindergarten, by middle school, Black students begin to underperform their White peers, regardless of income. Findings suggest that there has been a failure to examine how race and socioeconomic status shape achievement gaps and create patterns of educational inequality (Cabral-Gouveia, 2023). Other findings indicate that socioeconomic advantages are not considered when it comes to offering equitable benefits among different races of students. With these indications being unrecognized it perpetuates a culture in which students are marginalized (Grace & Nelson, 2019). Privileges and constraints are significant factors shaping and affecting students’ learning
experiences.
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In 2022, the average reading score for students with an Asian/Pacific Islander background in the 4th grade was 14 points higher than the average score for White students and 42 points higher than their Black peers (NAEP, n.d.). Th
ere has been no significant change between Black or White students or Hispanic score gap since 1992! What is more concerning is that the percentages of White and Black students were lower than those of Hispanic and Asian/Pacific Islander students and students of Two or More Races. (
NAEP
, n.d.) To improve reading and math scores, studies have strengthened the proof of using Micro and Meso testing versus Macro to adopt methods of teaching that are more student-
centered (Zulkifli, 2019). They allow teachers to assess their student’s learning more effectively rather than use generic testing (Zulkifli, 2019). For example, a student portfolio is a type of Meso testing tool that can be used to assess entire domains of learning (writing, comprehension, arithmetic, etc.) and reflect and modify teaching.
Common Testing Practices in Schools There are three types of educational assessments. Here is how they relate to student learning. 1.
Macro Testing defines what educators know as summative testing. SAT, ACT, and End-
of-Year assessments are just a few examples of Macro-testing. The assessments that fall under this category aim to test a student's overall performance and capability. It uses a common thread of questions to determine the placement or acceptance within an institution (
Wilson, M. 2023).
2.
Micro Testing occurs when one administers assessments like pop quizzes, mid-unit tests, or chapter tests. These methods focus primarily on verifying what a student has attained or retained within an isolated part of a curriculum. Micro Testing is considered low-level
THE IMPACT OF ACADEMIC DISPARITIES
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because it uses smaller building blocks from each unit or component to reach an overall performance goal (
Wilson, M. 2023).
3.
Meso Testing falls in between Macro and Micro testing. This particular assessment is more student-centered. Teachers' attitudes lean towards making connections in the classroom. Examples of Meso Testing may involve performance assessments or projects. The pedagogy that supports this comes from but is not limited to project-based learning, flipped classrooms, or interdisciplinary instruction. It evaluates whether assessments align with learning objectives and
provide a well-rounded picture of student performance (
Wilson, M. 2023).
Alternative Strategies
Standardized testing has traditionally been used to assess student knowledge and skills.
However, there are alternative assessment methods that educators and researchers have been exploring and implementing to provide a more comprehensive and equitable view of a student's abilities. Studies have shown that students have the capabilities to connect to real-life situations and take learning ownership. This increases in learning the contents (Madeja et al., 2004). Two main steps are taken to address the disparity issue. First, the students’ mindset must be reframed by educators. This is what researchers call a growth mindset. It is the acceptance that
personal distinctions, such as intellectual abilities, can be developed, whereas a fixed mindset is
the acceptance that personal abilities cannot be changed (Yeager & Dweck, 2020). In the classroom, when students face academic difficulties such as tests or critiques from an assignment, students who exercise growth mindset principles are more likely to identify the challenges and fight through being consumed by the challenges. By contrast, students who exercise fixed mindset principles are likelier to view those same difficulties and behave helplessly. The students believe that they lack intellectual ability and will, in turn, respond to an assignment as pointless (Kroeper, 2022).
In a student-centered approach, the focus is on modifying teaching and learning activities to meet the needs of students individually rather than following a one-size-fits-all
THE IMPACT OF ACADEMIC DISPARITIES
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approach. Student-centered approaches are the opposite of traditional teacher-centered approaches, where the teacher is the central figure in the classroom and delivers direct content.
While both approaches have their merits and can be used in different contexts, the student-
centered approach is more learner-focused and promotes lifelong learning. Learning through methods such as peer teaching and portfolios improves students' learning (Zulkifli, 2019). Wong
describes it as putting students in the driver’s seat of learning. In these classrooms, the teacher
takes a back seat and simply facilitates. Student-centered classrooms have gained popularity worldwide and promote critical thinking, life skills, and problem and project-based learning. Wong also mentions that it empowers students to obtain self-determination and independence (Wong, 2021). The framework called “Own it, Learn it, Share it” illustrates how to incorporate self-regulation in various types of classrooms. It provides many practical methods for educators, even in digital learning environments (Wong, 2021). ●
Own it- classroom engagement is encouraged, and student autonomy is enhanced
●
Learn it- grow skills that metacognitively throughout a learning process ●
Share it- empowering students to contribute their work with an appropriate audience
Learning Theory Associations
Although Lev Vygotsky did not coin the term cultural psychology, he, along with other researchers such as Alexander Luria and Alexsei Leont’ev, concentrated on interacting socially, awareness of culture and history, and individual factors as one develops as a human (Schunk, 2019). The cultural-psychological approach is a subsection of psychology that focuses on how culture plays a part in how an individual processes information and how that information impacts
the shaping of who they are (Wang, 2016). Researchers in this field promote a more inclusive and culturally informed approach to psychology, acknowledging that culture is an integral part of
the human experience and can significantly shape our thoughts, emotions, and behaviors.
Critical aspects of the cultural-psychological approach include but are not limited to cultural identity, cultural universals versus cultural specifics, and cultural norms and values.
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Cultural Identity: Stereotype Threat
Cultural psychology considers how individuals develop their cultural identities and how they affect their self-concept, self-esteem, and overall well-being(Cultural Identity Theory, n.d.).
The terms “Black Genius” and Asian Fail” are labels often used for these two racial groups in classroom situations. Stereotype Threat is the self-awareness of a specific group of people and how they are expected to behave. These threats can have the great potential to reduce academic focus and performance. It can also cause people to behave in ways that confirm the stereotypes they are anxious about. For instance, research shows that high-achieving Black students push back against the stereotypes of being intellectually inferior (McGee, 2018).
In contrast, Asian students feel vindicated as they uphold the racial stereotype of being intellectually superior. Both racial groups work extensively hard as a result of being stereotyped.
McGee states that Black students face many stereotyped barriers. Motivation is lost, and hopelessness experiences increased stress and anxiety, typically decreasing test scores. Historically, White and Asian middle-class males are assumed to be EXPECTED to outperform Black males from Kindergarten to higher education. These misinterpretations reinforce inequitable treatments and increase anxiety and fear (McGee, 2018). Cultural Universals vs. Cultural Specifics: Trauma History
Cultural psychologists analyze the degree of commonalities and differences in specific psychological processes and how they are universally shared across cultures. In addition, they examine the ways in which they are specific to particular cultures. They explore commonalities and differences in human behavior and cognition (Gray et al., 2019). There are several factors to consider when finding that current mental illness in the Black community can stem from specific psychological processes. Therapists and educators use the study of Dr. Joy Degruy, who argues that it is possible that the mental and physical impact of repeated traumas of rape, torture, and abuse during slavery or subjection to inequalities during the Jim Crow and Civil
THE IMPACT OF ACADEMIC DISPARITIES
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Rights era can be a considered a “generational curse.” (Campbell, 2019) It is an untreated mental condition passed on from generation to generation that stems from the oppression of Africans and their descendants (DeGruy, 2005). This can cause negative attitudes and behaviors for ascendants. Nevertheless, in order to heal, one must understand where the trauma is coming from.
EBD, Emotional and Behavioral Disabilities, has also been acknowledged as trauma because of the suppression of the past. Investigative metaphors for transgenerational trauma related to historical and current inflictions are called “hauntings,” and Black and Brown students have high percentages. Haunting goes against the will of one’s natural self. It is argued that “haunted” experiences can reconstruct the identity of students of color. However, inclusion aids in obliterating a “haunted” classroom. It would require educators’ practices, systems, and families to affirm the students’ personhood by intersecting race, gender, and trauma (Yoon, 2019)
Cultural Norms and Values: School-to-Prison Pipeline
Cultural psychologists examine how cultural norms, values, and beliefs influence various
aspects of human psychology (Wang, 2016). These cultural elements can affect perceptions, emotions, cognition, and social behavior. The School-to-Prison Pipeline describes a type of institutional power that directly targets and discriminates against certain groups and can be considered an unconscious norm. This is dangerous because it may determine the direction of an individual’s life. It also refers to the systematic strategy that pushes at-risk children out of classrooms and into the juvenile and criminal justice systems. Standardized testing is considered high-stakes. It
turns schools into a place of test preparation instead of a gathering of
enrichment. One study found that high school exams increase the chances of incarceration by 12.5% (Baker & Lang, 2013). NCLB, No Child Left Behind, has also taken part in raising that percentage, especially in low-income districts that face educational disadvantages. For example, researchers found schools gave students who usually score low on reports longer
THE IMPACT OF ACADEMIC DISPARITIES
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suspensions than higher-scoring students who committed similar infractions. This creates an atmosphere where teachers and administrators target specific students. In turn, suspended students are more likely to be involved in criminal behavior and will be less likely to complete school (Rosenbaum et al., 2020).
Gaps in Research
Although there is a considerable amount of study on how disparities of high-stakes testing are hurting the black community, much needs to be further researched. Education reform
must seriously examine the lack of representation of Black perspectives and authors in standardized test content. There needs to be more study on why this is. Black presence on school boards and policy committees is connected to more equitable educational policies. This connection continues to be the case even with struggles for economic resources between black political powers (Meier et al., 1984). Without this, It can make the material less relatable and engaging for Black students. This can be rooted in bias that favors the experiences and backgrounds of white, middle-class students. In addition, it puts Black students at a disadvantage when taking these tests.
Biblical Worldview
The Old and the New Testaments mention how to govern ourselves fairly and impartially. Isaiah 1:17 tells us to learn to do good. Seek justice. Help the oppressed. Defend the cause of orphans. Fight for the rights of widows (
Holy Bible, New Living Translation Version
,
2015, Isaiah 1:17). For there to be oppression, there must be an oppressor present. Some scholars found that in bible times, receiving justice required a legal response to the oppressor. This is also what is happening today. When Isaiah presented this mandate, he most likely focused on two groups of oppressed people. One of the groups was the poor, abused by the rich. In those days, the wealthy were allowed to take the land from the poor illegally. When they attempted to bring wealthy landowners to justice, corrupted court systems left the poor with no legal recourse. It is reasonable to say that God was concerned and compassionate for these
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victims. He stood as their mediator and boldly demanded equity from their oppressors. (Revell, 2008)
James 2:1-5, My brothers, show no partiality as you believe in our Lord Jesus Christ, the
Lord of glory. For if a man wearing a gold ring and fine clothing comes into your assembly and a poor man in shabby clothing also comes in, and if you pay attention to the one who wears the fine clothing and say, ‘You sit here in a good place,’ while you say to the poor man, ‘You stand over there,’ or, ‘Sit down at my feet,’ have you not then made distinctions among yourselves and become judges with evil thoughts? Listen, my beloved brothers, has not God chosen those poor in the world to be rich in faith and heirs of the kingdom, which he has promised to those who love him? (
Holy Bible, New Living Translation Version
, 2015, James 2:1-5). James was saying that showing favoritism is a sin because it goes against the character of God. He says that people should not treat people differently based on their status. For example, people should not mistreat the poor and treat rich people kindly or mistreat the rich and poor people kindly. People should simply exercise mercy and justice and fulfill the law.
Conclusion
In conclusion, inequitable testing will continue to pose a problem in the United States if not adequately examined. Socioeconomic advantage may not offer the same benefits for testing
to Black children as to White children. Privileges and motives related to socioeconomic status are different between Black and White Students. We must consider how this affects children’s learning experiences (Henry et al., 2020). Mass testing of academic performance has been found to be racialized, and only the “dominant” group will consistently be recognized as a sufficient source of knowledge. Efforts are made to lessen the achievement gap for disadvantaged students (Cunningham, 2019). However, disparities in test scores are being used. This involves fixing students rather than the examination method, despite confirmations suggesting that standardized testing is a poor indication of student knowledge. As such, we
THE IMPACT OF ACADEMIC DISPARITIES
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must examine the method by which standardized testing is formed and fails to address the harmful policy ideas it measures and, after that, reinforces.
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