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OCV
Chemistry, Grade 12 University Preparation (SCH4U)
Ottawa-Carleton Virtual Secondary School 2020-2021
Mr. Daniel Cho-En Lee (
daniel.cho-en.lee@ocdsb.ca
)
Lone pair electrons
Consider the ionic bonding between one Li and one F. Lithium loses its 2s
1
electron to fluorine (2s
2
2p
5
), filling up the
second shell of fluorine. We can trace this transferred electron on an orbital diagram.
Exercise 1
. On a piece of paper, transfer both electrons in the ionic compound Na
2
O using an orbital diagram.
(Don’t peek at the answer below!)
Note that for Na
2
O, there are 2 pairs of unbonded electrons leftover on the
second shell of oxygen. They are called
lone pair electrons
,
or simply “lone
pairs”. Each lone pair contains two electrons. These electron clouds are not
attracted by an adjacent atomic nucleus, so they are actually shorter than
regular bonds - not “long” pairs! Being valence electrons which repel each other, lone pairs help define the shape of a
molecule. We will soon see how.
Limited possible shapes of a molecule
No matter how complex a molecule is, we can always focus on a single central atom and discuss the shape of bonds
extending from this atom. There are only several possible shapes. Now let’s play:
PheT: Molecular Shape Simulation
https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/molecule-shapes
1
OCV
Chemistry, Grade 12 University Preparation (SCH4U)
Ottawa-Carleton Virtual Secondary School 2020-2021
Mr. Daniel Cho-En Lee (
daniel.cho-en.lee@ocdsb.ca
)
❏
Go to “model” and start adding bonded atoms as well as lone pair
❏
Click on “Name” → “electron geometry”
❏
Click on “Show lone pairs” and “Show bond angles”
Exercise 2
. Fill out the following table
Total # of connections at the atom of focus
(bonded atoms + lone pairs)
Name of shape
(incl. lone pair e
-
)
Bond angle
Example
1
N/A
N/A
H-
2
linear
180º
CO
2
3
Trigonal planar
120º
BF
3
4
tetrahedral
109.5º
H
2
O
5
Trigonal bipyramidal
90º and 120º
PCl
5
6
octahedral
90º
SF
6
Since a lone pair is closer to the central atom than a bond electron cloud, it tends to repel the bonded electron clouds
and narrow the bond angle by a little. What is the theoretical vs. realistic bond angle of NH
3
and H
2
O?
Conventionally we name the shapes of molecules without considering lone pairs, which are “invisible” (but inferrable)
on a regular molecular diagram. The formal names of molecular shapes are a bit more complex.
Now switch to “Real molecules” and go through the built-in examples. Switch on “molecular geometry”.
Exercise 3
. Fill out the following table
Total # of
connected atoms
Total # of lone pairs
Name of shape
(
excl.
lone pair e
-
)
Theoretical
bond angle
Example
1
0
N/A
N/A
H-
3
N/A
N/A
F-
2
0
linear
180º
CO
2
1
bent
120º
SO
2
2
bent
109.5º
H
2
O
3
0
trigonal planar
120º
BF
3
1
Trigonal pyramidal
109.5º
NH
3
2
OCV
Chemistry, Grade 12 University Preparation (SCH4U)
Ottawa-Carleton Virtual Secondary School 2020-2021
Mr. Daniel Cho-En Lee (
daniel.cho-en.lee@ocdsb.ca
)
2
T-shaped
90º
ClF
3
4
0
tetrahedral
109.5º
CH
4
1
seesaw
90º and 120º
SF
4
2
Square planar
90º
XeF
4
Note: The “octet rule” (max. 8 valence electrons) only applies to the second row on the periodic table. Larger atoms
have a greater surface area and can therefore accommodate more bond electron clouds and lone pairs.
Exercise 4
. What is the shape of the following molecules, including and then excluding lone pair electrons? What is
their theoretical bond angle? (Welcome to use the PheT simulation to figure this out, but eventually please memorize
them.)
❏
H
2
O
tetrahedral (incl. lone pair) / bent (excl. Lone pair)
❏
CO
2
linear / linear
❏
NH
3
tetrahedral / trigonal pyramidal
❏
BF
3
trigonal planar / trigonal planar
❏
CH
4
tetrahedral
/ tetrahedral
❏
SF
6
octahedral / octahedral
As long as we know (1) the total number of bonded atoms and (2) the number of lone pair electrons, the shape of the
molecule is already determined. The molecular formula (e.g. CH
4
, NH
3
) gives away the number of bonded atoms. An
orbital diagram gives away the number of lone pair electrons.
Bond hybridization
Let’s draw the orbital diagram showing the covalent bonding of methane (CH
4
). Carbon has an electron configuration
of [He] 2s
2
2p
2
. In order to make four covalent bonds with H, all of the four valence electrons are used in bonding. As
in reality the molecule tumbles rapidly, the bonds are averaged out - they have become
hybridized
. In other words,
the spherical 2s, the dumbbell 2p
x
, 2p
y
, and 2p
z
orbitals have now averaged out to become a 4-legged tetrahedron.
3
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OCV
Chemistry, Grade 12 University Preparation (SCH4U)
Ottawa-Carleton Virtual Secondary School 2020-2021
Mr. Daniel Cho-En Lee (
daniel.cho-en.lee@ocdsb.ca
)
Note: Each blue-arrowed electron comes from a different hydrogen.
From one 2s and three 2p orbitals, in a CH
4
molecule there are four hybridized
sp
3
orbitals
, forming four electron
clouds extending from the carbon atom. In your PheT simulation, drag around the bonds of your simulated CH
4
and
observe what happens. They should return to 109.5º as the electron clouds repel each other. As far as the common
atoms discussed in high school,
all sp
3
hybridized orbitals have this characteristic bond angle and tetrahedral shape
.
Exercise 5
. What is the bond hybridization of:
●
C in CCl
4
●
Si in SiF
4
?
(sigma) bond
The first bond to form between two atomic nuclei is always a “head-on” sharing of
electrons. The electron cloud (two electrons, opposite spins) are attracted by both
atomic nuclei and sit right in between them. Such a bond
is called a
?
(sigma) bond
, because there is always a
(hybridized) s orbital involved. All single bonds are sigma
bonds.
In a CH
4
molecule, each sigma bond is one sp
3
hybridized orbital of the C atom, and is also
the
filled s orbital of the H atom. Textbook pictures tend to draw them separately in order to show
the difference, but they are essentially the same electron cloud.
Also, as C is slightly more electronegative than H (EN: 2.5 > 2.1), the central C carries a weak partial negative charge
4
OCV
Chemistry, Grade 12 University Preparation (SCH4U)
Ottawa-Carleton Virtual Secondary School 2020-2021
Mr. Daniel Cho-En Lee (
daniel.cho-en.lee@ocdsb.ca
)
while each peripheral H carries a very weak partial positive charge.
Exercise 6
. What is the shape of this chlorofluorocarbon molecule, CF
2
Cl
2
? On a piece of paper,
draw the orbital diagram of carbon, one F, and one Cl. What type of bond hybridization happens at the
C? How many sigma bonds are there in total? How many lone pairs are there in total?
Answer:
https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1bWm56zyPZu05reCBTw1ws_6SDfv-Oul19r4EA7JDntQ/edit?usp=sharing
sp
3
with lone pairs
Not all sp
3
hybridized orbitals contain four bonded atoms. Any bonded atom may be replaced by a lone pair. There are
two important examples:
The sp
3
hybridized N atom in NH
3
includes one lone pair electrons and three bonded H. The sp
3
hybridized O in H
2
O
includes two lone pair electrons and two bonded H. Just like the case of CH
4
, the four sp
3
orbitals form a tetrahedral
shape, if we count the lone pair electrons.
VSEPR theory
Since the earlier PheT simulation, we have been treating lone pair e
-
as the equivalent to a bond electron cloud when
determining the shape of a molecule. Such a view makes sense to us because these negatively-charged electron
clouds repel each other on the surface of the molecule. Such thinking is coined the “valence shell electron pair
repulsion theory” (VSEPR).
5
OCV
Chemistry, Grade 12 University Preparation (SCH4U)
Ottawa-Carleton Virtual Secondary School 2020-2021
Mr. Daniel Cho-En Lee (
daniel.cho-en.lee@ocdsb.ca
)
How to determine the shape of a water molecule with VSEPR:
Exercise 7
. Return to the PheT simulation’s “real molecules” (though use theoretical models for simplicity). Use
VSEPR theory (see example above) to verify the shape of all sp
3
molecules on the list.
Exercise 8
. Draw the orbital diagram of C
2
H
6
(ethane), centering on one of the carbons. Show the bond hybridization
and determine the shape of this part of the molecule.
Extended topics:
Structure of Greenhouse gases
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sTvqIijqvTg
6
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Average Bond Energy (KJ/MOLE)
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dot structure represent?
:Cl:
O 7
LO
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IMG 1226.heic
Search
Listen
AM
Why does one side of a water molecule have a partial negative charge?
AM
Othe oxygen atom donates an electron to each of the hydrogen atoms
one of the hydrogen atoms donates an electron to the oxygen atom
the oxygen atom has two pairs of electrons in its valence shell that are not
neutralized by hydrogen atoms
the electrons shared between the oxygen and hydrogen atoms spend more time
around the oxygen atom nucleus than around the hydrogen atom nucleus
PМ
PM
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1A 2A
Li Be
1.0 1.5
Na Mg
0.9 1.2 3B 4B 5B 6B 7B
Ca Sc Ti V
1.0 1.3 1.5 1.6
Zr Nb
1.4 1.6
K
0.8
Rb Sr Y
0.8 1.0 1.2
Cs Ba La Hf
0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3
<1.0
1.0-1.4
1. NH3
2. H₂O
3. CCI4
Mo | Te
1.8 1.9
H
2.1
Cr Mn Fe Co Ni
1.6 1.5 1.8 1.8 1.8
8B
1.5-1.9
2.0-2.4
Ta W Re Os Ir
Pt
1.5 1.7 1.9 2.2 2.2 2.2
Ru Rh Pd Ag
2.2 2.2 2.2 1.9
2.5-2.9
3.0-4.0
Al Si P S
1B 2B 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.5
3 A
4A 5A 6A 7A
B C N 0 F
2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
4.0
Cu Zn Ga Ge
1.9 1.6 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.4
Cd
In Sn
1.7
1.7
1.8
Au
2.4
Hg
Tl
1.9 1.8
CI
3.0
As Se Br
2.8
Sb Te I
1.9 2.1
2.5
Pb
Bi Po At
1.8 1.9 2.0 2.2
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0
(choose one)
×
Ś
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The dipole moment (u) of HBr (a polar covalent molecule) is 0.844D (debye), and its percent ionic character is 12.5 % . Estimate the bond length of the H Br bond in picometers.
Note that
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HA
?
r= 5.3 • 1018
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n
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.
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●
6
# H
Ⓒ
CH, CHO:
0 Y
Chemic
b Draw Lewis structure(s) for the acetaldehyde molecule (CH₂CHO). If there are equivalent resonance structures, draw all of the
POLICE 81
MEDITE HARA
(4) Y
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ARQQA
000-ZIF
www
HEADING
Chartlkoodn
MES DE A
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Ja
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000-n [
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1.
Iron (III) chloride, FeCl; is an orange to brown-black solid at room temperature. It is used
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Write the electronic configuration of Iron and Chlorine atoms with Z= 22 and Z =
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By referring to the given periodic table, compare the electronegativity and radius
i.
ii.
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Draw the Lewis structure of solid Iron (III) chloride.
Using your knowledge of chemistry, determine the type of bonding present in Iron
(III) chloride.
iii.
iv.
2.
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[References]
Ammonium bicarbonate, NH,HCO3, contains both ionic and covalent bonds. Draw the Lewis structure of this compound.
Explicitly draw all H atoms.
Draw cations and anions in separate sketchers.
Do not use the square brackets tool in your answer.
C
орy аste
C
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Part C: How many valence electrons does Boron (atomic#5) have?
Part D: How many valence electrons does Silicon (atomic# 14) have?
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Construct a Born-Haber cycle for the formation of the hypothetical compound NaCl2, where the sodium ion has a 2+ charge (the 2nd ionization energy for sodium is given in Table 7.2 in the textbook).
Part A
How large would the lattice energy need to be for the formation of NaCl2 to be exothermic?
Part B
If we were to estimate the lattice energy of NaCl2 to be roughly equal to that of MgCl2 (2326 kJ/mol from Table 8.2 in the textbook), what value would you obtain for the standard enthalpy of formation, ΔH∘f, of NaCl2?
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- While investigating the properties of other diatomic molecules, the student finds the diagram below, which shows the potential energy of two iodine atoms versus the distance between their nuclei. The student also finds that the I-I bond energy is slightly less than the F-F bond energy. The student incorrectly sketches the potential energy curve for two fluorine atoms, shown by the dotted line in the diagram.arrow_forwardConsider the A2X4 molecule shown in the figure. A and X are atoms of two different elements. The A-A bond length in this molecule is d₁, while the four A-X bond lengths are each d2. What is the bonding atomic radius of atom X? -d₁ Od₁-d₂ Od₁-2 Od2/2 01-2 Od₂-d 2arrow_forwardHow do Group VIA elements form ions? A) They lose protons B) They gain two protons C) They lose two electrons D) They gain two electrons Which substance consists of anions and cations? A) CaF2, Calcium Fluoride B) Br2, Bromine C) Ag, Silver D) SiO2, Silicon Dioxide A newly discovered element is assigned to Group VIIA (Group 7A) in the periodic table. What charge will ions of this new element have? A) 1- B) 2- C) 1+ D) 2+ Reactions occur when atoms, ions or molecules collide. In a reaction between magnesium and bromine atoms, how many atoms of bromine will react per atom of magnesium? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4 Which compound exists as a solid crystal lattice of cations and anions at room temperature? A) BrCl B) CaCl2 C) SCl2 D) SiCl4arrow_forward
- Ammonium bicarbonate, NH4HCO3, contains both ionic and covalent bonds. Draw the Lewis structure of this compound. Explicitly draw all H atoms. • Draw cations and anions in separate sketchers. Do not use the square brackets tool in your answer. opy astearrow_forwardDecide whether these proposed Lewis structures are reasonable. proposed Lewis structure :01C10: :0—C HIC=N :0: || HIC-H O Is the proposed Lewis structure reasonable? Yes. No, it has the wrong number of valence electrons. The correct number is: No, it has the right number of valence electrons but doesn't satisfy the octet rule. The symbols of the problem atoms are:* 0 Yes. No, it has the wrong number of valence electrons. The correct number is: No, it has the right number of valence electrons but doesn't satisfy the octet rule. The symbols of the problem atoms are:* Yes. No, it has the wrong number of valence electrons. The correct number is: No, it has the right number of valence electrons but doesn't satisfy the octet rule. The symbols of the problem atoms are:* * If two or more atoms of the same element don't satisfy the octet rule, just enter the chemical symbol as many times as necessary. For example, if two oxygen atoms don't satisfy the octet rule, enter "0,0".arrow_forwardck Decide whether these proposed Lewis structures are reasonable. proposed Lewis structure esc HICICIH : 0: ! 1 Explanation || Q A :Z: L || N The symbols of the problem atoms are:* 10 * If two or more atoms of the same element don't satisfy the octet rule, just enter the chemical symbol as many times as necessary. For example, if two oxygen atoms don't satisfy the octet rule, enter "0,0". @ 2 Check W S O Yes. O No, it has the wrong number of valence electrons. The correct number is: O No, it has the right number of valence electrons but doesn't satisfy the octet rule. The symbols of the problem atoms are:* 0 O Yes. O No, it has the wrong number of valence electrons. The correct number is: No, it has the right number of valence electrons but doesn't satisfy the Ooctet rule. The symbols of the problem atoms are:* 10 OYes. O No, it has the wrong number of valence electrons. The correct number is: Is the proposed Lewis structure reasonable? # 3 No, it has the right number of valence…arrow_forward
- Conductivity of Solutions Virtual Lab Background: Some properties may be used to predict the type of bonding in a substance. These properties are phase at room temperature, melting point, solubility in water and electrical conductivity. Atoms can bond by either the transfer of electrons or the sharing of electrons. Atoms which transfer electrons form ionic bonds while those which share electrons form covalent bonds. A conductivity apparatus will be used in this experiment to determine if a substance conducts electricity. When the electrodes of the conductivity appartus are placed into a substance that conducts electricity the bulb will light up. This occurs because electricity travels from one electrode through the substance to the second electrode completing the circuit and lighting the bulb. If the substance does not conduct electricity then the circuit is not completed and the bulb will not light up. Objective: Several physical properties of different compounds will…arrow_forwardResearchers tested a meteorite for organic molecules containing 13C and 15N, which are carbon and nitrogen atoms with one extra neutron. However, a skeptic questions whether these "heavy" carbon and nitrogen isotopes would readily bond to make organic molecules such as amino acids and nitrogenous bases. Would extra neutrons affect the bonding of heavy carbon and nitrogen atoms? Multiple Choice No, because only electrons are involved in bonding. No, because the number of protons remains the same. Yes. Atoms with extra neutrons must also have extra electrons, which would affect bonding. Yes, extra neutrons would make carbon and nitrogen more likely to bond.arrow_forwardBenzene (C6H6) has six equivalent carbon atoms and two resonance structures: H. H-っ Hープ If the C-C single bond length is 1.56 Å and the C=C double bond length is 1.19 Å, what is the observed (average) carbon/carbon bond length in benzene? State your answer in Å (without units). Note: the H- H. c-C" numbers in this question are not the actual bond lengths.arrow_forward
- Dd.74.arrow_forwardDecide whether these proposed Lewis structures are reasonable. proposed Lewis structure Is the proposed Lewis structure reasonable? Yes. No, it has the wrong number of valence electrons. .. The correct number is: || olo No, it has the right number of valence electrons but doesn't satisfy the octet rule. Ar The symbols of the problem atoms are:* Yes. No, it has the wrong number of valence electrons. The correct number is:| N=N No, it has the right number of valence electrons but doesn't satisfy the octet rule. The symbols of the problem atoms are:* Yes. No, it has the wrong number of valence electrons. The correct number is: || H - C= N No, it has the right number of valence electrons but doesn't satisfy the octet rule. The symbols of the problem atoms are:* * If two or more atoms of the same element don't satisfy the octet rule, just enter the chemical symbol as many times as necessary. For example, if two oxygen atoms don't satisfy the octet rule, enter "O,0". Explanation Check O 2021…arrow_forward+ How many valence electrons are in Cat? X Śarrow_forward
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