Facial Reconstruction in Forensic Anthropology and Odontology

Running head: FACIAL RECONSTRUCTION 1 Forensic Anthropology and Odontology Anna Disbennett American InterContinental University August 4, 2020

Running head: FACIAL RECONSTRUCTION 2 Part 1

Running head: FACIAL RECONSTRUCTION 3 Bone Descriptions Parietal Bone - This is a large, thin, four-sided cranial bone that covers the top of the skull and some of each side of the skull. It protects the brain and other internal structures, but it also maintains the overall shape of the head. Occipital Bone - This is a trapezoid shaped bone which is at the lower back of the skull. It is a bone that is one of the seven bones that come together to form the skull and it is the bone that houses the back part of the brain. Frontal Bone - The frontal bone is most commonly known as the forehead which supports the front and the back of the skull. This bone consists of three parts which are the squamous, or bital and nasal. It is located in front of the parietal bones and above the nasal bones. Maxilla - This bone is the upper jawbone that is vital viscerocranium structure of the skull. Also, this bone holds the upper teeth and it consists of five major parts. These five major parts are the frontal, zygomatic, palatine, and alveolar. Mandible - This is the lower jawbone which is the largest and strongest bone of the facial skeleton system. It is horseshoe shape and it is tasked with holding the lower set of teeth in place. It is not directly connected to the other bones in the skull. Clavicle - The clavicle is also known as the collar bone. This bone is an elongated, s-shaped bone that runs horizontally from the base of the neck to the shoulder and its main function is to support the shoulder and provide mobility to the arm. The clavicle is an important bone because it provides everyday functional movements.

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Running head: FACIAL RECONSTRUCTION 4 Scapula - This is known as the shoulder blade, which is a large, flattened, triangular-shaped bone. This bone is very fragile, and it can easily be broken. Sternum - The sternum, also known as the breastbone, is divided into three parts. The three parts are the manubrium, body of sternum, and xiphoid process. Humerus - The humerus is the longest, and strongest bone of the arm. This bone connects with the radius and ulna to allow for a wide range of motion in the arms. Ribs - There are twelve pairs of ribs that form a cage like structure that provides protection for the lungs and heart. Vertebrae - Consists of various bones of the spinal column. The endpoint is known as the coccyx and it also consists of four fused vertebrae that makeup the tail bone. Radius - The radius is responsible for rotation of the arm. This bone is thicker, and it is the shorter bone of the two long bones within the forearm. Sacrum - This is a single bone that is comprised of five separate vertebrae that come together during adulthood. It forms the foundation of the lower back and the pelvis. Ilium - The largest bone of the hip and it is also known as the iliac bone. An essential part of the pelvic girdle. This bone assists in supporting the upper body and helps with walking. Pubis - This is also known as the pubic bone and it is located in front of the pelvic girdle. Provides protection to the urogenital organs. Ischium - This bone forms the lower and back sides of the hip bone. It is located behind the pubis and under the ilium. It plays an important role in leg mobility, balance, standing up, and lifting tasks.

Running head: FACIAL RECONSTRUCTION 5 Ulna - This is a median bone in the forearm which runs parallel to the radius. Carpals - These bones make up the wrist. Metacarpals - Bones that make up the palm. Phalanges- Bones that are in both the fingers and toes. Femur- This is known as the thigh bone and it is the longest and strongest bone in the body. Patella- This bone is also known as the kneecap and it is a thick triangular bone in the knee. Tibia - This is the shin bone and it is the larger and stronger bone of the two bones that form the lower leg. Fibula- This is the calf bone and it is the smaller bone of the two bones that form the lower leg. Talus- This is the bone at the top of the food that holds the weight of the entire body. It is a short bone and is one of the main bones of the ankle. Metatarsus- These bones are known as the five long bones of the foot. Tarsals- These bones are located in the mid foot and rearfoot and they are an important part in movement.

Running head: FACIAL RECONSTRUCTION 6 Part 2 Forensic Odontology is a branch of forensic science that analyzes the characteristics of teeth, their alignment, and the overall structure of the mouth in order to provide evidence to help identify a specific person (Li, R. 2015). Odontology also analyzes bite marks that are left on a victim or at a crime scene and can analyze and compare dental records for the identification of human remains. Most of the time, forensic odontology is used when the body cannot be identified through fingerprints or other ways because the body is so broken down or because the body is in an advanced decomposition stage (PC, D. D. 2019). Teeth are strong enough to the point that odontologists can still used them to identify the remains even after the body has been destroyed. The odontology process is used in facial reconstruction to help establish a person’s identity. The use of odontology in facial reconstruction is placated upon attempting to sculpting facial features over the cranium, the mandible and any associated dentitions (Chowdry, A., Kapoor, P., Popli, B. D., sircar, K. & Miglani, R. 2018). Teeth from the craniofacial complex can be used to determine the race, age, and sex of individual’s remains. Also, odontology is used in facial reconstruction by showing any restorative dental corrections of the teeth like fillings, which can be used to make a comparative identification of a person. Odontology is used in facial reconstruction by giving a few pinpoints of where the jawline is and showing points of connection to the skull in order to determine the length of the chin, the width of the mouth, and it is used to help determine the age, sex, race, and possible color of the individual whose remains are being examined. Odontologists can use the teeth to check the status of an individual’s teeth and how they have changed throughout life as well as the combination of missing, decayed, or filled teeth, which is measurable and comparable to any fixed point (Verma, K. A., Kumar, S.,

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Running head: FACIAL RECONSTRUCTION 7 Rathore, S., & Pandey, A. 2014). In many cases, the only thing left of the skeleton is the bones and teeth in which they could use the teeth to try and get a match to the dental records. If odontologists cannot get a match on the dental records, then they can use the bones and teeth to make a reconstruction on the face and try to get a match that way. There are at least 3 primary cells that make up the bone. The three primary cells that make up the bone are osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts. These three cells make up the bone and they are responsible for bone growth and mineral homeostasis. Osteoblasts create new bone cells and secrete collagen which mineralizes to become bone matrix. Also, osteoblasts are responsible for bone growth and the uptake of minerals from the blood (“13.11: Structure of Bones.” 2020). Osteocytes are cells that regulate homeostasis. Also, they direct the uptake of minerals from the blood and they release the minerals back into the blood as needed (“13.11: Structure of Bones.” 2020). The third primary cell that makes up the bone is osteoclasts. Osteoclasts are cells that dissolve the minerals in the bone matrix and release them back into the blood. Bones can give information regarding growth. For example, men will have a larger skeleton compared to women. Women will have a wider subpubic angle and a broader sciatic notch. Also, women have a subpubic concavity, which is either absent or shallower in men and they have a sharp ridge down the ischiopubic ramus, which is flat or blunt in males (Dunning, H. n.d.). Also, women have a preauricular sulcus and a ventral arc, which are absent in males. Bones can tell us whether the skeleton is male or female. Also, the skeleton can provide information about the age of the remains. The teeth can be used to tell a child’s age to the year, but once adult teeth have developed it is harder to determine the age. Bones continue to grow until the age of 30 and there are bone caps known as epiphyses that fuse together at different stages of growth.

Running head: FACIAL RECONSTRUCTION 8 Bones are often categorized as either young (20-35 years), middle (35-50 years), and old (50+ years). A skeleton can provide us with the age and sex information. The skull contains a total of 22 bones. Eight of those bones are cranial bones and fourteen of them are facial bones. The eight cranial bones are the frontal bone, two temporal bones, two partial bones, a sphenoid bone, an ethmoid bone and an occipital bone and they are separated by coronal, lambdoid, sagittal and squamosal sutures (Anderson, Kortz, & Al Kharazi, 2020). The fourteen facial bones consist of two nasal conchae, two nasal bones, two maxilla bones, two palatine bones, two lacrimal bones, two zygomatic bones, the mandible, and the volmer. All of these bones play a vital role of the human body (Anderson, Kortz, & Al Kharazi, 2020). These bones protect the inner contents such as the cerebrum, cerebellum, brainstem and orbits as well as they support muscles of the face and scalp which provides an anchor for muscular and tendinous attachments. The bones also provide protection for the nerves and vessels that feed and supply the brain, facial muscles, and the skin. There are major muscles in the face. Facial muscles are striated muscles that attach to the bones of the skull to perform important functions for daily life. The major functions that facial muscles serve are mastication and facial expressions. The muscles of mastication are the temporalis, medial pterygoid, lateral pterygoid, and the masseter (Westbrook, Nessel, Varacallo, 2020). Another important function is facial expression. The muscles that create facial expression are the orbicularis oculi, nasalis, levator labil superioris, alaeque nasi, the depressor labii inferioris, procerus, auriculars, zygomaticus major, zygomaticus minor, buccinator, occipitofrontalis, corruguator supercilii, risorius, depressor anguli oris, orbicularis oris and the mentalis (Westbrook, Nessel, Varacallo, 2020). These muscles are important to the face because they give the face shape.

Running head: FACIAL RECONSTRUCTION 9 Facial expressions may be unique to every individual. With the ability to produce subtly different variants allow for humans to develop individual signatures (“Learning from the Dead: What Facial Muscles can tell us about emotion.”2008). All humans have a core set of five facial muscles but there are 19 facial muscles that some individuals have but others do not. Everyone can produce the same basic facial expression, but everyone has individual variations. From a skeleton, we can learn what variations that individual had as well as what facial expressions they had.

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Running head: FACIAL RECONSTRUCTION 10 References "13.11: Structure of Bones." . (2020). Retrieved from Retrieved from https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/introductory_and_General_Biology/Book %3A_Inductory_Biology_(ck- 12)/13%3A_Human_Biology/13.11%3A_Structure_of_Bones Anderson, W. B. (2020). Anatomy, Head and Neck, Facial Muscles . Retrieved from Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK499834 Chowdry, A. K. (2018). Inclusion of Forensic Odontologist in Team of Forensic Facial Approximation-A Proposal and Technical Note . Retrieved from Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326913920_Inclusion_of_Forensic_Odontologi st_in_Team_of_Forensic_Facial_Approximation_A_proposal_and_technical_note Dunning, H. (n.d.). Analyzing the bones: what can a skeleton tell you? Retrieved from Retrieved from https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/analyzing-the-bones-what-can-a-skeleton-tell- you.html Li, R. (2015). Forensic Biology, Second Edition 2nd ED. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press Taylor& Francis Group. Retrieved from Retrieved PC, D. D. (2019). How to Solve Crimes with Forensic Odontologist . Retrieved from Retrieved from https://www.davisdentalpc.com/2019/01/15/how-to-solve-crimes-with-forensic- odontology/ Portsmouth, U. o. (2008). Learning From the Dead: What facial muscles can tell us about emotion . Retrieved from Science Daily: Retrieved from www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/06/080616205044.htm University., A. I. (2020). Forensic Biology: Major Bones in the Human Skeletal System [Multimedia Presentation]. Retrieved from Retrieved from American InterContinental University Virtual Campus, CRJS478-2002B-01:https://mycampus.aiu-online.com Verma, K. A. (2014). Role of dental expert in forensic odontology . Retrieved from Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4178350 Westbrook, E. K. (2020). Anatomy, Head and Neck, Facial Muscles . Retrieved from Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK493209/

Anna Disbennett Unit 2 Individual Assignment Forensic Biology

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