What are Indigenous studies

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University of Manitoba *

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1220

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Jun 5, 2024

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Unit 1- Activity What are Indigenous studies? Indigenous studies aim to help us understand Indigenous Peoples culture, religion, tradition, and interest in society at the local, regional, and national levels to develop the appropriate abilities for addressing these issues worldwide. Various aspects of Indigenous studies have been approached. The methodological approaches in Indigenous studies : Methodology, Epistemology, and Ontology are examples of diverse approaches to examining Indigenous knowledge. The Methodology method relies on polls, records, group discussions, and interviews to give Indigenous Studies a constantly evolving approach that uses different methods of thinking about research. Epistemology refers to the capacity to safeguard and maintain the framework of society while also separating thoughts from legitimate beliefs through research. Ontology, on the other hand, demonstrates how Indigenous studies connect to the land, the universe, surroundings, and language itself, highlighting credibility and duty. The Theoretical approaches in Indigenous studies : Indigenous Studies discuss and inform Indigenous research using a variety of theoretical frameworks, including postcolonial, critical, feminist, queer, and Marxist. The postcolonial theory is still being debated, and some argue that it does not necessarily imply the end of colonialism because most Indigenous peoples continue to bear the consequences of colonialism. Critical theory aims to reduce the power that rules, discrimination, feeling helpless, and other similar forces wield over society. It is critical to recognize that Indigenous feminists

advance democracy and nationality in society by educating others about prejudice, sexism, and colonialism, as well as raising awareness through solidarity. Marxism supports Indigenous Peoples unique struggles . Indigenous Studies has struggled to define itself as a discipline, driven by a desire to break free from cultural norms and punishment structures that fail to recognize the diversity of ethnicity. To highlight the body of work of Indigenous Studies that emerged from the extensive evaluation process, the authors' contributions to the canon can be classified into four categories: destruction, interrogation, exposure, and knowledge creation. Destruction: is a method for deconstructing "colonial deception in Canadian histography, literature, and culture at large" by using narratives to address histography, literature, and pop culture, as well as imaginary beliefs of Indigenous Peoples, such as dying, writing, exemplary, and acting, that were heavily influenced by the media during the twentieth century. Dismantling: In Canada, political ideologies and constituent preferences influence the formulation of government policy. Unfortunately, this system was built on racism and falsehoods, relying on colonial precedents that have harmed Indigenous communities. The denial of indigenous rights, as recognized in treaties shaped by Western policies and institutions, is based on a colonial paradigm. Exposure: Adams (1975), in a work now considered a revisionist history classic, retells the story of Canada by exposing the government's 21 atrocities, shattering any notion that the country is protecting Indigenous people. Simpson (2017) furthers the Indigenous call to denounce Western hegemony and support actions for cultural resurgence through the disruption of the colonial state.

Creation: When the canon was first conceived, new knowledge in Indigenous Studies was based on various disciplines. Traditional knowledge was accepted in Indigenous Studies by introducing the concept into the canon; over time, they gained acceptance in the institution and are now permitted to speak in the community. In a nutshell, Indigenous Studies focuses on centuries of Indigenous life in ancestral homelands while also looking into the social processes that have and continue to affect Indigenous Peoples in Canada since European colonization. Reference: Department of Indigenous Studies | Faculty of Arts | University of Manitoba. (n.d.). Umanitoba.ca. https://umanitoba.ca/arts/indigenous-studies Reference : Forsythe, L. (2020) Indigenous Studies Methodological, Theoretical, and Canonical Foundations. UM Learn. University of Manitoba /content/enforced3/571349-REV_INDG1220/Indigenous Studies Methodological, Theoretical, and Canonical Foundations.pdf Unit 2 -Activity The role of Indigenous burning in land management. Each landscape demonstrates the past and customs of the people who live there. The current American surroundings reflect the enduring effects of one perspective positioned on another: colonial versus Indigenous. This history is most visible in attitudes toward the fire, as they manifest on the landscape. Fire was used by Indigenous Peoples throughout North America, and its presence or absence strongly shaped the resettlement vegetation (Kilgore 1985; Williams 2000a).

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1. Identify and discuss the philosophy of burning in Indigenous agriculture. Philosophy: Fires were intentionally ignited to fulfill a wide variety of purposes, from clearing village sites (Brown 2000) to long-distance signaling. The myth that nature can be controlled serves as the foundation for Western society's fire suppression policies. Interestingly, attempts to control nature through fire suppression have resulted in greater unpredictability. The indigenous viewpoint emphasizes that all forces are dual, both imaginative and corrosive. Human use of fire is an example of mutual dependence. The indigenous use of fire is based on the reciprocal responsibility ethic, which promotes an adaptive symbiosis in which burning benefits both humans and nonhumans. The interesting fact was that fire is sacred to Indigenous Peoples. For example, Indigenous Peoples in the Northwest burned grasslands and savannas to increase root crop yields such as camas and geophytes. Walpole Island First Nation's prairies have been ritually burned since ancient times by the Potawatomi, Ojibwe, and Ottawa peoples. They accept this responsibility and call themselves the "keepers of the fire." 2. What were the goals of Indigenous burning? The primary goal of fire was to promote food security, manage crops, reduce pests, create mosaics, and increase crop productivity while also altering the environment to ensure their existence. Fire still is widely used in the management of basketry plants, to provide a consistent crop of straight, slender shoots and roots (Ortiz 1993). Fire was used to create prairies, which attracted elk, deer, and other wildlife. Indigenous Peoples effectively modified fire regimes to create forest openings at various stages of postfire succession, resulting in increased diversity and yield of game, berries, ro ot crops, edible seeds, and medicinal plants.

3. Outline the evidence shared to support Kimmerer & Lake's (2001) assertions. Some shreds of evidence show that Indigenous burning was not a consistent practice, but rather a result of misguided attitudes towards traditional knowledge. Accounts of aboriginal burning can be found in notes that are not accepted by Western scientists, who claim that burning harms the vegetation and land, making agriculture obsolete. Many tribal people’s material cultures would not have survived without the extensive use of fire. In terms of energy conservation, fire was the most effective land-management tool for indigenous people. Fire technology has evolved over millennia through extensive experimentation and observation. Fire has played a significant role in many cultures, reflecting a worldview that values human participation in nature. Reference: Kimmerer, R. W., & Lake, F. K. (2001). The Role of Indigenous Burning in Land Management. Journal of Forestry , 99 (11), 36–41. https://doi.org/10.1093/jof/99.11.36 Unit -3 Activity Indigenous contributions to the World. 1. Outline the biological exchange of disease following the 1492 voyage by listing the diseases brought to Turtle Island and their effect on the Indigenous population.  Smallpox , Measles, Whooping cough, Chicken pox, Bubonic plague, Typhus, and Malaria : Many Indigenous Peoples died because of widespread smallpox outbreaks. Their population and ability to resist European colonization were significantly reduced. These were all deadly imported diseases, either highly contagious or bacterial. Indigenous Peoples, who had no prior exposure or immunity to the disease,

experienced a devastating impact on populations. The precise extent of the depopulation is unknown, but it is estimated that 80-95% of the Native American population died within the first 100-150 years following 1492.  Syphilis: The most contentious exception is venereal syphilis, which ranks as the twelfth-deadliest disease in history. The disease was often fatal, and the symptoms were far more severe. Symptoms included genital ulcers, rashes, large tumors, severe pain, dementia, and death. 2. List some of the foods found on Turtle Island that are widely used and describe the significance of the transfer of food. Foods found on Turtle Island included potatoes, sweet potatoes, maize, and cassava which were rich in minerals and carbs easing the impact of food shortage. The exchange introduced a variety of calorie-dense staple crops to the Old World. Tomatoes, chili peppers, cacao, peanuts, and pineapples, all low-calorie foods that enhance living foods by boosting the intake of vitamins and improving flavor, were introduced into Old World countries. In many cases, New World foods had an important influence on the creation of local cuisine for instance, Chilli peppers (dried capsicum) offered shape to Indian spicy curries, Hungarian pepper is the national spice of the country, and side dishes such as Korean spicy kimchee. Tomatoes have had a major effect on Italian and Mediterranean food by providing an important source of Vitamins such as A and C. America became the most enthusiastic supporter of crops introduced to the New World, such as sugar, coffee, soybeans, oranges, and bananas. 3. Describe the forced and voluntary migrations of the Columbia Exchange.

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The Columbian Exchange is the exchange of diseases, ideas, food crops, and populations between the New and Old Worlds after Christopher Columbus' 1492 voyage to the Americas. Between the sixteenth to nineteenth centuries, over twelve million Africans were shipped to the Americas during the transatlantic slave trade, the largest involuntary migration in human history (Lovejoy, 2000; Manning, 1990; Nunn 2008b). Indigenous Peoples were forced to leave their land and settle elsewhere. Between 1851 and 1924, 45 million people migrated from the European continent to the Americas, with the majority of 34 million settling in the US. For example, half of the million forced laborers were transported from the Indian subcontinent to the British Caribbean, where they worked in the sugar and cotton industries. They were subjected to harsh, severe conditions such as malnutrition and other vulnerable diseases, and they were denied basic human rights after their contract expired, including the right to citizenship in the countries. Reference : Nunn & Qian, N. (2010). The Columbian Exchange: A History of Disease, Food, and Ideas. The Journal of Economic Perspectives, 24(2), 163–188. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.24.2.163 Unit 4 – Activity The British/French Fur Trade 1. Describe the roles of women in York Factory in the early 1800s. HBC York Factory, located beneath the narrow island that separated the channel of the Hayes River from that of the Nelson in northwest Manitoba, existed from 1684 to 1957. This location

was one of HBC's most important posts and distribution points during the fur trade era. From 1802 to 1803, the Hudson's Bay Company's London Committee negotiated with employees at the York, Eastmain, and Moose factories to acknowledge the value of women's work. In 1802, the men of York Factory wrote a strong defense, reminding the committee of women's critical roles in postal operations and trade. “The women are deserving of some encouragement and indulgence from your honors, they clean and put into a state of preservation all beaver and otter skins brought by the Indians undried and in bad condition—they prepare line for snowshoes and knit them also without which your honor’s servants could not give efficient opposition to the Canadian traders. They make leather shoes for the men who are obliged to travel about in search of Indians and furs and are useful in a variety of other instances—in short, they are virtually your honors servants and as such we hope you will consider them (Ballenden et al. 1802: 41). 2. Identify what women were being contracted to do for the Northwest and Hudson's Bay Companies both in the Big Houses and out in the fields. The women of the Northwest Company had several advantages over laborer women and the wives of Hudson's Bay Company officers who were mainly focused on their home arrangements, whereas the wives of laborers, translators, and tradesmen performed more tedious and physical tasks, frequently working as domestic servants in the homes of privileged men. Working women were hired as traveling laborers. The company required the other women to earn their daily necessities and allowances by "scrubbing" their own homes and "the big house"—essentially working as McDonald's domestic servants.

Keeping the large square clean entailed sweeping and removing debris, cleaning up after loose sled dogs, and shoveling snow in the winter. They were also required to keep “the square clean,” make “a certain number of tracking shoes for the voyageurs,” and plant and harvest the potatoes (Cowie 1993: 213). Most of the work involved digging for potatoes or breaking prairie grass, but also included haying, weeding, and mixing mud for building homes and reconstruction. In addition to Métis women, women from other communities were hired for physically demanding tasks, including those outside the post's walls. 3. In the transition from Fur Trade to Rural Labourers what type of roles did women take on in the early 1900s Women's roles and responsibilities change depending on their background as they transition from the fur trade to rural laborers in the early nineteenth century. In the early nineteenth century, women worked in the sugar beetroot industry and made their primary income from it. Women learn all types of housework, such as cooking, dairying, and laundry, as well as how to make their clothes and most of the boys' clothing. They played an important role in agriculture and livestock. They also help in the garden, milk the cows during the summer, and have complete control over the poultry. As white settlement spread, Aboriginal peoples in Canada faced economic, legal, and social challenges. Their status and respect for their work fell dramatically. Regardless of their occupation, many women went on to oversee their homes and families. Reference: HBC Heritage — York Factory . (n.d.). www.hbcheritage.ca. Retrieved Feb 10, 2024, from https://www.hbcheritage.ca/places/forts-posts/york-factory

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Reference : Farrell Racette, S. (2012). Nimble Fingers and Strong Backs: First Nations and Métis Women in Fur Trade and Rural Economies. (p. 148–). University of Illinois Press. Unit 5 – Activity Misrepresentations and Misunderstandings 1. History has long privileged the written word over oral history. According to Stevens (2013), what impact has this had on our collective understanding of the Haudenosaunee? The Haudenosaunee, also known as the 'People of the Longhouse', was depicted as an imposing military and political force that traveled to the Atlantic coast at the mouth of the St Lawrence River to trade and fish, before the concept of an 'Atlantic World' gained scholarly attention. European historians' written records provided a distorted view of Indigenous culture by including inaccurate details about their culture and history, portraying the Haudenosaunee as wild and cruel. Setting aside written material throughout spoken resources neglects Indigenous viewpoints which results in a partial awareness of their customs, practices, and the past. Historiographers created these documents to silence Indigenous Peoples voices and prevent them from shaping their history and rights. One of the anonymous authors of this Relation wrote: ‘We cannot go very far back in our research in their history, as they have no Libraries other than the memory of their old men; and perhaps we

should find nothing worthy of publication’ (Thwaites, 1899, Vol. 45: 205). This demonstrates how few historians cared about non-written evidence at the time. 2. Identify the three movements associated with the Franco Iroquoin historiographic tradition. The Franco-Iroquoian historiographic tradition includes important details about the interactions between French settlers and Iroquoian Indigenous peoples in North America. The three major movements associated with this tradition are:  Jesuit Relations is a collection of annual reports written by Jesuit missionaries in Canada and sent to France between 1632 and 1672. The Jesuit missions in North America occurred during a period of transition in France's colonial intentions, which were to convert indigenous peoples living in distant lands. The Jesuits quickly became indispensable to the French administration, serving as gatekeepers between the colonial government and the Indigenous peoples.  The international relations and partnership movement examines diplomatic efforts, treaties, and alliances between the French and the Haudenosaunee, focusing on the fur trade and shared financial goals.  The conflict between the Haudenosaunee and the French, as led by French historians in the seventeenth century, was based on military and political interaction, with periods of unity and aggression. 3. Document the issues with Du Creux's text History of Canada or New France.

Du Creux sees the history of Canada as a call to arms. The author sees the Iroquois as a significant threat and aims to define Canada differently which includes writing the history of a place that is thought to have none. His detractors argue that little has been accomplished in Canada (as earlier reported by the Jesuits), making Du Creux's task small and ineffective. Du Creux, for his part, believes New France's history has been unfortunate. Counter-Reformation France's Canadian martyrs represent the country's belief in establishing true faith in North America. The distinction between New France's indigenous converts and the bestial enemies represented by the Iroquois is critical to the project. Du Creux claims Canadian history, but only just. The Haudenosaunee are frequently viewed as a threat to European civilization and an impediment to advancement. His account of Canadian history shows the wealth of information contained in Jesuit Relations. Du Creux's History of Canada focuses on the Jesuits in Canada and was written for both spiritual and noble audiences. The Latin text centers on the violent conflict between the Haudenosaunee and their French allies in the mid-seventeenth century. It adds to the popular perception of the Iroquois as cruel and resentful of the French. Reference: Scott Manning Stevens (2013) The Historiography of New France and the Legacy of Iroquois Internationalism, Comparative American Studies An International Journal, 11:2, 148- 165, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1179/1477570013Z.00000000037

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