Final Exam Criminology Fall 2023

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CUNY John Jay College of Criminal Justice *

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203

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Sociology

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Jan 9, 2024

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1 Final Exam Criminology SOC 203 –Fall 2023 This exam covers Modules 7-11 (Ch 7, 10, & 12-16) ONLY. While it is not cumulative, keep in mind that some concepts discussed in earlier modules were revisted by integrated and life course theorists Due December 20, 2023 by 11:59pm (worth a total of 35% of your total grade) Name: Isadora C. Silva Date and Time Submitted: _________________ Submission Instructions: Answer the following questions in this word document. This will avoid formatting complications and allow me to track changes when providing feedback. Then, submit it on Blackboard as a Word file (e.g., .doc, .docx) using the link under “Assignments”. Do not delete any part of this template. Include heading, instructions, and questions. Citation Instructions: You must ONLY use the required readings. Outside sources are not permitted. No AI generated answers are permitted. You must also use in-text citation for each answer; this means providing the authors (Lilly, Cullen, and Ball), year of publication (2019), and pages you used within your answer for corresponding paraphrased text. If you have an ebook, provide the subsection of the chapter as opposed to page numbers. You must provide this in-text citation in parentheses after the corresponding sentence. Provide your in-text citation in parentheses after the corresponding sentence or paragraph. For example: Paraphrased statement (Lilly, Cullen, and Ball, 2019, pp. 200-203, OR Lilly, Cullen, and Ball, 2019, Chapter 10, subsection of chapter). You can only cite a few pages at a time—not the entire chapter, beginning to end, in one citation. **Including in-text citations for paraphrased text does not mean you must quote the text. You are not to quote any text. I will not accept answers that are not cited at all or contain incomplete citations.** Your citation does not count toward the minimum word requirement. There are 20 short answer questions, but most of them do not require extensive writing. Please pay attention to the questions that are multi-faceted, involve making references to films/videos, and are worth over 5pts. Answer each part of every question and use the template provided. Do not create a new document or delete or alter the written tasks or instructions. Do not delete the question numbers or change numbered bullet points. Cite according to the instructions above. The same goes for the extra credit questions which are on the last page.

2 The follow questions are each worth 10%. Your Answers must be at least 160 words (not including the words from in-text citation). 1. Discuss the main premise of Braithwaite’s Reintegrative Shaming Theory and how it explains crime. Make sure you distinguish the two different types of shaming in his theory. Then, illustrate your points with real life example of “good” shaming and “bad” shaming and their consequences. What are the policy implications of this labeling theory? (Module 7, i.e., Ch 7) *Application: How can Braithewaite’s Theory be used to explain Sandro do Nascimento's hijacking of Bus 174 in the documentary Bus 174?* Answer: 2. Explain Routine Activities Theory, Perceptual Deterrence Theory, and Rational Choice Theory. How are the theories connected? First explain the premise of each theory and then draw connections. Be thorough when discussing the theoretical components/assumptions of the theories. (Module 9, i.e., Chs 12 & 13) *Application: Use the opportunity theories to explain Father O’Grady’s criminal behavior in the documentary “Deliver Us From Evil” and Mr. and Mrs. Turpin’s criminal behavior in “Escape From House of Horror.* Answer: 3. Explain the main premise of Moffitt’s Developmental Theory. Compare and contrast Moffitt’s Life-Course Persistent and Adolescent-Limited groups (i.e., how are life course persistent individuals different from the adolescent limited and what some of the early warning signs for the LCP are, as seen in Moffitt’s New Zealand study). (Hint: Module 11, i.e., Chs 15 & 16) *Application: Use Moffitt’s Theory to explain the trajectory of Aileen Wournos’ criminal behavior. Which type of offender category would Aileen fall under and why?* Answer: - Limited (AL). LCP offenders begin displaying antisocial behaviors early in life, and these behaviors persist into adulthood. This group is characterized by a persistent pattern of offending and is often accompanied by cognitive and neuropsychological deficits that can be identified early on, as Moffitt’s study in New Zealand indicated. These deficits can include problems with self-control, cognitive functioning, and may reflect in the individual’s consistent engagement in criminal activities throughout their life (Lilly, Cullen, & Ball, 2019, p. 758). In contrast, AL offenders typically exhibit antisocial behavior during adolescence. This behavior is generally situational and tied to peer influence, ceasing as they mature and assume adult roles and responsibilities. The AL group is more populous and their criminal activities are often seen as an adolescent phase rather than a lifelong pattern. When applying this theory to Aileen Wuornos’ criminal trajectory, the pattern of her offenses and her early life challenges suggest she would fall under the LCP category. Her consistent engagement in criminal behavior from a young age into her adult years is indicative of the chronic, enduring pattern characteristic of LCP offenders, as opposed to the more transient, peer-influenced behavior of AL offenders. Wuornos' trajectory, marked by early and ongoing antisocial behavior, aligns with the core aspects of Moffitt’s LCP profile. The follow questions are each worth 8%. Your Answers must be at least 140 words (not including the words from in-text citation). 4. Explain Sampson and Laub’s original theory (an age-graded theory of informal social control) and then explain their more recent elaboration of their perspective. How does Sampson and Laub’s perspective

3 represent a critique of both Gottfredson and Hirschi’s self-control theory of continuity in offending and of Moffitt’s two-group developmental theory of antisocial behavior. What policy implications arise from this theory? (Hint: Module 11, i.e., Chs 15 & 16) Answer: - Sampson and Laub's original theory, an age-graded theory of informal social control, posits that social bonds exert significant influence on individuals' propensity to engage in criminal behavior and that these bonds evolve throughout one's life. The strength and nature of ties to family, employment, and broader society serve as a controlling mechanism, which can either propel or deter criminal activity (Lilly, Cullen, & Ball, 2019, p. 235). In later elaborations, they emphasized the role of human agency and significant life events in desisting from crime. This perspective critiques Gottfredson and Hirschi’s self- control theory by stressing the changing nature of social bonds rather than static individual traits as determinants of criminal behavior. It also counters Moffitt’s two-group theory by suggesting the potential for change even in life-course persistent offenders (Lilly, Cullen, & Ball, 2019, p. 766). Policy implications arising from this theory include the potential effectiveness of interventions aimed at strengthening social bonds at various life stages, thus offering a dynamic approach to crime prevention and rehabilitation (Lilly, Cullen, & Ball, 2019, p. 770). The follow questions are each worth 7%. Your Answers must be at least 130 words (not including the words from in-text citation). 5. What do biochemical theories argue? After providing this general premise, discuss sex hormones and neurotransmitters, including how testosterone may influence the aggressive and/or dominant personalities that males tend to have, and what are neurotransmitters and which neurotransmitters seem to be most closely associated with crime and antisocial behavior. Last, discuss how such biochemical theories could be used to reduce criminal behavior. (Hint: Module 10, i.e., Ch 14) Answer: - Biochemical theories posit that criminal behavior may arise from underlying biological factors such as hormonal imbalances or neurotransmitter dysregulation. These theories examine the role of sex hormones like testosterone, which is often associated with aggression and dominance, traits more commonly observed in males and potentially linked to higher rates of criminality among them (Lilly, Cullen, & Ball, 2019, p. 678). Neurotransmitters, the brain's chemical messengers, are central to these theories. They influence mood and behavior, with certain neurotransmitters, like dopamine, being closely associated with crime and antisocial behavior when their balance is disrupted (Lilly, Cullen, & Ball, 2019, p. 677). Biochemical theories imply that targeting these biological underpinnings through pharmacological means or lifestyle interventions could help reduce criminal tendencies. Adjusting neurotransmitter levels and addressing hormonal influences could be viable strategies for mitigating antisocial behaviors and reducing crime. 6. What is the frontal lobe dysfunction hypothesis and how does it explain crime (in your answer discuss the brain functions and deficits in relation to behavior). What role do protective and risk factors play? After answering, illustrate your points with references to Jimmy Fallon’s video shown in class. (Hint: Module 10, i.e., Ch 14)

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4 Answer: - The frontal lobe dysfunction hypothesis asserts that impairments in the frontal lobes can lead to criminal behavior due to their critical role in executive functions, including decision-making, impulse control, and emotional regulation. This area of the brain integrates stimuli and directs responses, which are essential for self-control. Deficits in these functions can result in a higher propensity for risk-taking and aggressive behaviors (Lilly, Cullen, & Ball, 2019, p. 674). Protective factors, such as a supportive family environment, may mitigate these risks, while additional risk factors like substance abuse can exacerbate them. The hypothesis suggests that males, with a generally smaller orbitofrontal cortex, might be predisposed to lower self-control and higher negative emotionality, influencing their likelihood to engage in criminal acts. Jimmy Fallon’s video, as referenced in class, can illustrate this hypothesis by showing how a typically functioning individual's behavior might contrast with someone exhibiting frontal lobe deficits, such as diminished capacity for impulse control or understanding consequences, which could lead to criminal actions. 7. Explain what is meant by continuity and change across the life course. Discuss how Gottfredson and Hirschi’s low self-control theory, Patterson’s social-interactional development model, Moffitt’s life-course- persistent and adolescence-limited theory, and Sampson and Laub’s age-graded social bond theory address these two core concepts. (Hint: Module 11, i.e., Chs 15 & 16) Answer: - Continuity and change across the life course refer to the persistence or alteration in behavior as individuals age. Gottfredson and Hirschi's low self-control theory asserts that individuals with low self- control are likely to engage in offending throughout their lives, signifying continuity in antisocial behavior (Lilly, Cullen, & Ball, 2019, p. 741). Patterson's social-interactional development model outlines how disruptive childhood interactions can lead to continued offending, while change is possible if negative influences are removed or positive influences are introduced later in life (Lilly, Cullen, & Ball, 2019, p. 717). Moffitt's theory categorizes offenders into life-course-persistent (LCP), demonstrating continuity, and adolescence-limited (AL), who show change as they outgrow antisocial behavior after adolescence (Lilly, Cullen, & Ball, 2019, p. 702). Finally, Sampson and Laub's age- graded social bond theory emphasizes that while weak social bonds may lead to persistent offending, changes in life circumstances can strengthen social bonds, leading to desistance and change in criminal behavior (Lilly, Cullen, & Ball, 2019, p. 709). The follow questions are each worth 5%. Your Answers must be at least 110 words (not including the words from in-text citation). 8. Explain the premise of Medick’s Hypoarousal Hypothesis and the twin study conducted in the 1980s from which his theory developed. Did Mednick’s twin study support this hypothesis? Explain. (Hint: Module 10, i.e., Ch 14)

5 Answer: - Mednick’s Hypoarousal Hypothesis centers on the idea that individuals with lower-than-average arousal levels in the autonomic nervous system (ANS) are more prone to criminal behavior. This lower arousal is characterized by fearlessness, sensation seeking, and a tendency towards boredom, leading to increased risk-taking and criminal activities. The hypothesis was developed from observations that offenders often display lower levels of arousal, as indicated by electroencephalographic (EEG) studies showing more prevalent theta and delta waves, which are associated with drowsiness and low alertness (Lilly, Cullen, & Ball, 2019, p. 663). Mednick’s twin study in the 1980s was instrumental in exploring this hypothesis. The study looked at biological, psychological, and sociological predictors of violence and found low resting heart rate, a marker of hypoarousal, to be a consistent predictor of criminal behavior. This supported the hypothesis that hypoarousal, indicated by physiological measures like pulse rate and skin conductance, could be linked to criminal tendencies. The study’s findings contributed to the broader understanding of biosocial factors in criminology, emphasizing the role of biological influences in criminal behavior (Lilly, Cullen, & Ball, 2019, p. 673). 9. Explain Elliott et al.’s integrated strain-control paradigm. In doing so, discuss which theories are seen in this paradigm and how the paradigm explains crime across the life course. According to this paradigm, how can one reduce the likelihood of criminal behavior? (Hint: Module 11, i.e., Chs 15 & 16) Answer: - Elliott et al.'s integrated strain-control paradigm combines elements of strain theory, social control theory, and social learning theory to explain crime across the life course. Strain theory posits that societal pressure to achieve success can lead to criminal behavior when legitimate means are unavailable. Social control theory emphasizes the role of social bonds and relationships in preventing crime, arguing that strong social ties discourage criminal behavior. Social learning theory suggests that criminal behavior is learned through interaction with others and the observation of behaviors and their consequences. According to this integrated paradigm, reducing criminal behavior involves addressing the factors identified by these theories. This includes reducing societal pressures that lead to strain, strengthening social bonds and relationships to increase informal social control, and influencing the social environment to discourage the learning of criminal behavior. These strategies acknowledge the multifaceted nature of criminal behavior and the importance of considering a range of influences across an individual's life (Lilly, Cullen, & Ball, 2019, pp. 587, 594, 599, 595). The follow questions are each worth 4%. Your Answers must be at least 100 words (not including the words from in-text citation).

6 10. Labeling theorists argue that ties to conventional society are most likely to be severed when state intervention involves institutionalization. Explain what imprisonment entails for an offender. How does it change an individual’s everyday life once released or what limitations are placed on an individual once they leave a facility? (Hint: Module 7, i.e., Ch 7) Answer: - Labeling theorists contend that imprisonment significantly disrupts an offender's connections to conventional society, leading to profound changes in their life post-release. Imprisonment often results in the loss of employment, strained or severed family relationships, and a societal stigma attached to being an ex-convict. These consequences continue to affect individuals after release, as they face challenges in securing employment due to their criminal record and the gap in their work history. Additionally, ex-offenders often experience social isolation and stigmatization, as their criminal label overshadows other aspects of their identity, making reintegration into society difficult. The societal view of ex-offenders as untrustworthy or dangerous further exacerbates these challenges, hindering their ability to rebuild social ties and leading to a higher risk of recidivism (Lilly, Cullen, & Ball, 2019, p. 279). 11. Describe the New Jim Crow. How does this influence the reentry process from prison to the community? How can we combat the New Jim Crow? In your answer, also explain what principles are needed for an effective reentry program, and what are the challenges in creating an effective reentry program? (Hint: Module 7, i.e., Ch 7) Answer: - The New Jim Crow, a term popularized by Michelle Alexander, refers to the mass incarceration of African Americans, which effectively creates a racial caste system similar to the Jim Crow laws of the segregation era. This system marginalizes individuals through criminal records, impacting their reentry into society. Ex-offenders face significant barriers in finding employment, housing, and accessing educational opportunities or public assistance, perpetuating a cycle of disadvantage and often leading to recidivism (Lilly, Cullen, & Ball, 2019, p. 279). Combatting the New Jim Crow involves policy reform aimed at reducing systemic inequalities in the criminal justice system and providing comprehensive support for reentry programs. Effective reentry programs should encompass principles like stable housing, employment support, education and training opportunities, mental health and substance abuse treatment, and community integration. Challenges in creating effective reentry programs include securing adequate funding, overcoming public stigma against ex-offenders, and coordinating various services and agencies to provide holistic support (Lilly, Cullen, & Ball, 2019, p. 279). 12. Explain male peer support theory. How are elements of strain theory seen within this theory? Describe what role does social patriarchy play in this theory. Based on the theory, what are some potential policies that could be enacted to reduce crime? (Hint: Module 8, Ch 10) Answer: - Male Peer Support Theory, formulated by DeKeseredy and Schwartz, argues that violence against women in intimate relationships is socially constructed, influenced by male peer groups. These groups reinforce and legitimize violent behaviors as a means of asserting masculinity, especially when challenged by women. The theory incorporates elements of strain theory, viewing violence as a response to stress or strain in gendered interactions. Central to this is the concept of social patriarchy, where societal norms position men as dominant, fostering expectations of obedience and subservience from

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7 women. In this framework, male aggression is a reaction to perceived threats to their masculine identity. To combat this, potential policies could focus on reshaping societal norms around masculinity, promoting gender equality, and educating about healthy, respectful relationships (Lilly, Cullen, & Ball, 2019, p. 450). 13. Explain the social context of the last two decades and its impact on conservative criminology today. How did the last two decades differ from the context of the 1980s and 1990s? How have those differences influenced conservative ideals? (Hint: Module 9, i.e., Chs 12 & 13) Answer: - In recent decades, conservative criminology has evolved, reflecting changes in social and political contexts. The 1980s and 1990s, characterized by a push for stringent law enforcement and punitive measures, contrast with the recent emphasis on the complexities of crime and the limitations of the criminal justice system. This shift acknowledges economic challenges, racial inequalities, and the inadequacies of solely punitive approaches (Lilly, Cullen, & Ball, 2019, pp. 538-539). While conservative ideals still value personal responsibility and societal institutions, there's a growing recognition of the need for multifaceted crime reduction strategies. This evolution in thought partly arises from the high costs and challenges of mass incarceration, leading to a nuanced understanding that extends beyond rigid punitive measures. 14. Felson suggested that blocking crime opportunities can be heightened through three strategies. Identify and briefly explain these three strategies. Then give an example of each of the three strategies. (Hint: Module 9, i.e., Chs 12 & 13) Answer: - Felson posits that crime opportunities can be curtailed through three principal strategies: increasing the effort required for crime, enhancing the risk of detection, and reducing the rewards of criminal acts (Lilly, Cullen, & Ball, 2019, p. 624). To increase effort, physical barriers such as better locks or complex security systems can be implemented, for instance, steering wheel locks deter auto theft by requiring additional effort to steal the vehicle. Enhancing risk involves strategies like improved lighting or surveillance systems that heighten the likelihood of detection, much like CCTV cameras in retail stores. Reducing rewards could involve practices like marking property to deter theft, akin to the use of ink tags on clothing in stores, which renders the item unusable if stolen (Lilly, Cullen, & Ball, 2019, p. 624). These strategies focus on modifying the immediate environment to decrease crime opportunities rather than attempting to alter deep-rooted criminal tendencies. 15. Explain the genetic biosocial approach. What does r/K theory argue? Make sure to identify and explain each type of genetics discussed by the authors Lilly, Cullen, and Ball. What social policies can be enacted based on this theory to reduce crime? (Hint: Module 10, i.e., Ch 14) Answer: - The genetic biosocial approach encompasses behavior genetics, molecular genetics, and epigenetics, exploring the connection between genetic endowments (genotypes) and observable traits and behaviors (phenotypes). Behavior genetics examines heritability and environmental influences on traits such as impulsivity and IQ, often utilizing twin studies (Lilly, Cullen, & Ball, 2019, p. 685). Molecular genetics delves into the DNA processes affecting traits and behaviors, propelled by the Human Genome Project, which emphasizes that environmental contexts can modulate genetic predispositions (Lilly, Cullen, & Ball, 2019, p. 686). Epigenetics investigates how environmental factors can alter gene functioning

8 without changing DNA, sometimes affecting multiple generations (Lilly, Cullen, & Ball, 2019, p. 688). R/K theory posits that certain life history traits linked to reproduction strategies correlate with criminal behavior, with r-strategy individuals likely engaging in crime due to environmental instability (Lilly, Cullen, & Ball, 2019, p. 663). Social policies informed by this theory could focus on creating stable environments to mitigate early puberty and antisocial adaptations, aiming at reducing the heritable and environmental propensities for criminal behavior. The follow questions are each worth 2%. Your Answers must be at least 80 words (not including the words from in-text citation). 16. Explain how the importance of the motivated offender differs between the opportunity theories in Chapter 13, compared to theories presented in prior chapters. How does that difference shift the focus of crime control? (Hint: Module 9, i.e., Chs 12 & 13) Answer: - Opportunity theories in Chapter 13, such as routine activity theory, view the motivated offender as just one element in the crime equation, with crime opportunities shaped by daily activities and environmental designs (Lilly, Cullen, & Ball, 2019, p. 613). This contrasts with prior theories that focus more on individual criminal predispositions. Consequently, crime control shifts from changing offender behavior to modifying environments to prevent crime opportunities, thus prioritizing situational crime prevention strategies over individual offender rehabilitation (Lilly, Cullen, & Ball, 2019, p. 622-623). 17. How could opportunity theories inform approaches toward probation and parole? Would the insights from the theories in Module 9 improve current probation practice? Why or why not? (Hint: Module 9, i.e., Chs 12 & 13) Answer: - Opportunity theories from Module 9, such as routine activity theory, emphasize the significance of an offender's environment in the occurrence of crime. Applying these theories to probation and parole could shift the focus from solely monitoring compliance to actively managing and restructuring the environments that probationers and parolees inhabit (Lilly, Cullen, & Ball, 2019, p. 613). By minimizing access to criminal opportunities and enhancing community guardianship, probation practices could become more proactive, potentially reducing recidivism. This approach aligns with the principles of environmental corrections, which advocate for modifying situational factors to prevent crime, suggesting a tangible improvement in current probation strategies. The follow questions are each worth 1%. Your Answers must be at least 70 words (not including the words from in-text citation). 18. Explain the logic behind integrated theorizing. What is the difference between traditional theories and integrated theories? Explain the main shortcomings of integrated theories. (Hint: Module 11, i.e., Chs 15 & 16) Answer: - Integrated theorizing in criminology aims to synthesize diverse theoretical insights, addressing the multifaceted nature of crime causation beyond any single theory's scope (Lilly, Cullen, & Ball, 2019, p. 737). Traditional theories tend to be siloed, focusing on one aspect of human behavior, whereas integrated theories draw on multiple theories to offer a comprehensive view of criminal behavior.

9 However, such integration can result in a lack of theoretical coherence, combining variables from various theories without considering their underlying compatibility or the complex interplay of their respective assumptions and predictions (Hirschi, 1989). This approach risks producing a theoretically incoherent 'buffet' of ideas rather than a synergistic and balanced theoretical 'meal' (Lilly, Cullen, & Ball, 2019, p. 737). Despite these shortcomings, if integrated theories can enhance our understanding of crime causation both in the short and long term, they may still offer valuable insights. 19. How do life-course theories differ from prior theories in the book? What are the major strengths of life- course theories? (Hint: Module 11, i.e., Chs 15 & 16) Answer: - Life-course theories differ from previous criminological theories by emphasizing the developmental and longitudinal aspects of criminal behavior (Lilly, Cullen, & Ball, 2019, p. 732). They consider the full span of an individual's life, acknowledging that factors influencing criminal behavior may vary at different life stages. This perspective highlights the importance of early childhood experiences and their long-term impact on behavior, challenging theories focused mainly on adolescence. Life-course theories’ major strengths include their capacity to account for changes in criminal behavior over time, recognizing the potential for desistance and the influence of adult life transitions and social bonds on criminal trajectories. These strengths provide a more dynamic and nuanced understanding of criminal behavior compared to static models that do not consider the evolution of individual lives (Lilly, Cullen, & Ball, 2019, pp. 733-734). 20. How does a feminist perspective inform the theories from the mainstream theories discussed in previous modules? (Hint: Module 8, Ch 10) Answer: - A feminist perspective informs mainstream criminological theories by critiquing their traditionally gender-blind or androcentric approaches and by incorporating an understanding of how gender inequality and patriarchal structures influence crime and victimization (Lilly, Cullen, & Ball, 2019, p. 421). Feminist criminology emphasizes that the experiences and behaviors of women cannot be understood fully without considering the systemic and institutionalized sexism within society. By focusing on the intersectionality of gender with other social categories like race and class, feminist theories highlight that women's criminality is often a response to their marginalized status and the limited opportunities available to them due to societal structures (Lilly, Cullen, & Ball, 2019, pp. 436- 437). Furthermore, feminist perspectives have brought attention to crimes predominantly affecting women, such as domestic violence and sexual assault, which were previously marginalized in criminological research. This approach not only broadens the scope of mainstream theories but also proposes policy changes aimed at addressing the broader social issues that contribute to gender-based crimes (Lilly, Cullen, & Ball, 2019, p. 422).

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Final Exam Criminology Fall 2023

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