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1 CHAPTER APPLICATION PAPER: CHAPTER 13 Chapter Application Paper: Chapter 13 Macey Hale CJUS 700: Theories of Crime Liberty University Dr. Jared Linebach February 21, 2024

2 CHAPTER APPLICATION PAPER: CHAPTER 13 Introduction In recent decades, researchers, criminologists, and other individuals within the field of criminal justice have focused their efforts on understanding the reasoning behind criminal behavior and why it occurs so often within our society. This is especially true within our Western culture due to the major increases of women’s involvement in criminal behavior since the late 1960s (Simpson, 2016). During this time, most criminologists were curious about female offenders on a count that violence and criminal behavior seemed out of “role” for a woman’s biology. That said, gender in criminology is still a major focus, and gender plays the largest role in assisting criminologists and researchers to understand delinquent and criminal behavior (Snipes et al., 2019). By focusing on these biological, psychological, influential, and social factors, criminologists can better understand the differences between men and women. This research is conducted with the hope that we can reduce criminal behavior and handle it more accordingly. Chapter Information: Key Points and Patterns Upon reading and analyzing chapter 13 of the given textbook, “Vold’s Theoretical Criminology”, the reader further understands that gender research in criminal justice has led society to develop a separate study known as feminist criminology. This chapter focuses on a variety of significant issues such as women offenders, victimization of women, treatment of women offenders, women’s experiences, and the clear distinction between the crime rates of men and women. This chapter also highlights a variety of theories created by feminists to explain why

3 CHAPTER APPLICATION PAPER: CHAPTER 13 women’s crime rate numbers are lower than men’s crime rates. To understand this issue, one must understand the definition of feminism and how it relates to criminology. The Feminist Criminology: The beginning of the feminist movement existed within the early 1890s. This movement came together upon the principle that women were unequally treated on the levels of economics, social status, political opportunities, and basic human rights (Simpson, 2016). As part of this movement, women’s crimes were not often recognized by the traditional or classical schools of criminology. This is partly because criminal behavior was once believed to be a masculine phenomenon (Snipes et al., 2019). Other theories existed when defined criminal behavior were believed to be gender-neutral; therefore, women’s criminal behavior was not focused on criminologists. With that being said, the criminal acts conducted by women did not go unnoticed by law enforcement agencies and the court systems. It was understood that women were often punished harsher than male offenders on the account that criminal behavior was not seen as biologically possible (Snipes et al., 2019). Due to the lack of theories and understanding of women’s criminal behavior, any action conducted outside of the perceived normals were considered deviant, and women were often wrongly accused for criminal offenses. This all changed during the 1970s as society acknowledged the feminist movement’s challenging of the understood gender roles within society. Traditional criminology was debated upon as several books were released upon the subject of women and criminal behavior. One book Sisters in Crime: The Rise of the New Female Criminal , the author, Freda Adler, discussed how women were adopting an unusual aggressive demeanor and becoming more competitive. She explained that women were abandoning normal social roles and integrating themselves in a

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4 CHAPTER APPLICATION PAPER: CHAPTER 13 male world (Snipes et al., 2019). In one section of the book, Alder stated, “A similar number of determined women are forcing their way into the world of major crimes” (Snipes et al., 2019, p. 318). Months later, another book was released by Rita James Simon. In her book, similar findings to Adler’s book were explained. However, Simon did not believe that women were adopting masculine behaviors and characteristics; instead, women always had these biological abilities. Yet, these abilities were hidden behind ‘traditional homebound roles,’ therefore, women did not present themselves as capable of committing criminal behavior. The later increase of women’s roles in criminal behavior pushed for the field of criminology to focus on the development of theories defining woman’s criminal behavior. The Feminist Narratives within Criminology: Due to the recognition achieved due to the publications regarding women’s roles in criminal behavior, several new narratives began to appear. These narratives included radical, Marxist, and even socialist perspectives (Snipes et al., 2019). The first perspective, radical liberals, focused on society and the rest of the world through the lens of men controlling or dominating women. Dominance was displayed through gender roles of a man having the ability to work and socialize, while a woman’s roles were to be a caretaker for the home and offspring (Snipes et al., 2019). In this perspective, men were seen as superior beings due to their strength and masculinity. This narrative was created by a sociologist known as Max Weber. Years later, a prominent feminist, Kate Millett, would agree with Weber’s idea on male domination and blamed this on understood sex roles in our society. The second narrative of feminism is known as Marxism. Marxist feminism is often defined as a variant, one that sees women as exploited through the means of status, economy,

5 CHAPTER APPLICATION PAPER: CHAPTER 13 and capitalism (Snipes et al., 2019). It is understood that,“For Marxist feminists, patriarchy is tied to the economic structure of capitalism and results in a ‘sexual division of labor’ in which men control the economy and women serve them and their sexual needs” (Snipes et al., 2019). In this viewpoint, we see that a woman’s actions in attempts to dismantle a man’s economic dominance are seen as crimes for which women are punished. Therefore, Marxist women see the criminal justice system as an enemy, along with the male population, the economy, capitalism, and even some groups within our society. It is understood that these narratives perceive the laws and social roles as tools of oppression by males (Snipes et al., 2019). The third narrative in feminist criminology is socialism. While this viewpoint stands on its own, it does take a few points from the Marxist feminism narrative. Socialist feminists do believe that social roles and laws are tools of oppression, but they also see reproduction as a third tool to control women (Snipes et al., 2019). Before birth control and other contraceptives, it was understood that women were controlled by the processes of menstruation, pregnancy, and menopause. At these times, women were more reliant on male partners for survival and were forced into understood social roles to care for their children. These narratives of feminism lead a generous portion of the female population to believe that they are oppressed, and equality does not exist within criminal justice. Gender’s Existence in Criminology: While these feminist narratives play a significant role in forcing the field of criminal justice to recognize women as offenders, criminology decided to create a focus on comparing male and female offenders. This study is known as gender within criminology. With this being said, there are issues with including the differences of gender within criminology. One of the

6 CHAPTER APPLICATION PAPER: CHAPTER 13 first issue viewpoints is generalizability. This issue poses that original theories were based on males, and if these theories can be applied to explain females’ criminal behavior as well (Snipes et al., 2019). In some cases, the use of generalizability is useful in some crimes, like property or sexual. The second issue lies in the use of gender ratios to explain why women are less likely to be involved in criminal behavior than men. During the 20 th century, early criminology efforts only focused on biological and psychological disorders or underdevelopment as the cause for individuals to commit criminal acts (Snipes et al., 2019). Due to women’s reported crime rates being low, those who commit acts are seen to have more serious psychological or biological issues rather than male offenders. As centuries passed and the feminist movement established its roots, this perspective of women’s criminal behavior changed, and women were believed to be influenced by their male partners or the movement. "Many of the theories look at variations in socialization, particularly as related to gender roles, arguing that females are socialized toward greater conformity and less risk-taking than males” (Snipes et al., 2019, pg. 323). It was understood that most parents are stricter on their daughters rather than their male offspring. As a direct result, males are more inclined to participate in delinquent behavior. On a biological focus, a male has higher levels of testosterone, and it has been prone to cause aggressiveness. Therefore, it is believed to cause males to commit criminal acts and a higher rate than females (Snipes et al., 2019). However, modern theories often examine society’s power relations and controlling behavior in addition to the parenting behaviors that have taken place. Supporting this idea, Agnew’s general strain theory explains that men and women are faced with several types of strain on a daily basis, and it impacts every individual differently. Males face personal conflict, financial, and family stresses,

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7 CHAPTER APPLICATION PAPER: CHAPTER 13 while women face family stresses and gender discrimination (Snipes et al., 2019). Some feminists have debunked this idea and support the idea that women often commit criminal acts to display and prove their strength or feminity. Therefore, the exact answer to what causes females to commit criminal acts is uncertain, as similar to males. However, we can understand that parenting, environment, and psychological factors play the largest role in determining an individual’s criminality. That said, this gap is narrowing every decade. In today’s society, the United States witnesses a high rate of both male and female offenders (Snipes et al., 2019). This increase encouraged the criminal justice and correctional systems to establish separate facilities to punish both male and female offenders. The textbook explains, “Schwartz et al. found that females comprised about 12 to 14 percent of all homicides over these decades, 2 to 4 percent of rapes, and 5 to 6 percent of newly admitted prisoners for homicide, rape, robbery, and assault” (Snipes et al., 2019). While some researchers and criminologists believe it was an increase in female offenders, others believe it was a decrease in male offenders. Regardless of the true cause, the gender gap within rates of violence is narrowing as society continues modernizing. Applying the Chapter to Various Articles Involving Criminal Behavior: After reading and analyzing the chapter, the chapter’s purpose is to define how and why gender exists within criminology and how it correlates with feminist criminology. Feminist criminology is defined differently by radical, Marxist, and socialist viewpoints; however, their common ground focuses on criminal justice as a form of control placed by men. The summary above defines the differences between male and female offenders, but it also explains why the crime rates with female offenders are much lower than those of male offenders. The chapter

8 CHAPTER APPLICATION PAPER: CHAPTER 13 poses the question of what factors play a role in the criminal behavior of both males and females. Yet, the information also asks why female crime rates are much lower than males. As the result of understanding this chapter, the chapter’s content will be compared to three different articles discussing gender and feminism in correlation to criminal behavior. As juvenile delinquency has become a larger issue in the United States, it has become a major focal point of research by criminologists and other individuals in criminal justice. An article focusing on juvenile delinquency by Armelle Weil (2022) utilizes the same theories mentioned within gender criminology in order to understand how masculinity or feminity impacts one’s desire to participate in criminal behavior. In the article, the author interviews a boy and a girl, both of whom had been involved in delinquent behavior. The interview consists of questions and ‘gender projects’. Both interviews revealed that the boy and girl subjects displayed a perspective of hegemony or dominance (Weil, 2022). However, the male subject, Ernesto, admits that his past criminal behavior is not what is expected of a man. Instead, a man is seen as masculine once he has settled down, stopped delinquent behavior, and owes not a single individual (Weil, 2022). In summary, Ernesto defines his actions as several ‘bad decisions’ that were deemed punishable by society’s laws. On the other hand, the female subject, Yasmina, displays the mere ideology of feminism as defined by the chapter within the textbook. “On the girl’s side, emancipation from institutions of social control (e.g., family, parents, social workers) is their major goal for the future, albeit an individual and short-term project” (Weil, 2022, pg. 378). It is understood that the feminist perspective defines ‘settling down’ as social control because a woman is expected to get married and have children. However, Yasmina desires another path, one made by her own decisions and

9 CHAPTER APPLICATION PAPER: CHAPTER 13 desires without social control. This type of research explains that the issue of criminal behavior goes beyond biological or psychological factors. Instead, these delinquent behaviors can be related to environmental factors, values, beliefs, ideals, and identities (Weil, 2022). This author’s perspective and research agrees with the textbook’s information and encourages that criminal behavior is more than simply feminist criminology. Instead, criminal behavior can be encouraged by both development and lifestyle. The second article focuses on similar perspectives of feminism criminology and how gender impacts criminal behavior. In this article, Vann (2019) explains that women view the world differently compared to the rest of society, therefore, feminism highlights the issues and social controls placed on women by society itself. In her article’s introduction, she explains that a variety of fiction exists within criminology’s understanding of criminal behavior. One mentioned example of fiction is victimization or the ability to single one out for unusual behavior (Vann, 2019). She explains that victimization occurs when society blames or targets women for imitating violence or presenting themselves as suitable targets for men. As a result of this fiction, some women develop conflicted feelings that persuade them to commit further criminal behavior to ‘prove a point’ about the unfair criminal justice system in the United States and around the world (Vann, 2019). In the textbook, it is mentioned that individuals with this type of viewpoint are considered Marxist feminists. These types of feminists encourage delinquent behavior in women and promote that women should challenge male domination within society (Snipes et al., 2019). Therefore, the author’s research deems social control, inequality, and domestic violence in entertainment as the cause for some women’s criminal behavior. However, unlike the textbook, this author fails to consider the possible factors that

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10 CHAPTER APPLICATION PAPER: CHAPTER 13 cause criminal behavior in women. Instead, the research is simply focused on feminist teachings within criminology. The third article focuses on feminist criminology and the misogyny that exists within our society. The author, Chesney-Lind (2020), explains that feminist criminology’s research should extend past a biological or psychological understanding of why criminal behavior exists. Instead, a criminologist’s research should focus on additional factors like gender, racism, sexism, and reproduction rights. In the article, it explains the three supported views within feminist criminology: radical, socialist, and Marxist. She explains that these views have a common ground surrounding the issue of abortion criminalization (Chesney-Lind, 2020). It was understood that women were more reliant on men through social control during pregnancy, childbirth, and raising the child. Abortion was seen as a solution and tool for freedom to ensure that women stayed independent and did not have to rely on men’s social controls once a child was conceived. It is then explained, that during a 2014 survey, more than 28% of African American women were abortion seekers (Chesney-Lind, 2020). “Abortion is central to the rights of women, particularly women of color” (Chesney-Lind, 2020, pg. 416). These women polled that the main reasons for utilizing abortion was poverty, homelessness, or lack of family support. The author then explains that criminalizing abortion is not only sexist but could also be seen as racism. Upon making the decision to criminalize abortion and remove a key women’s right, the American society could see a major increase in criminal behavior from women as retaliation. Therefore, this article agrees with the information in the textbook in relation to a real-world issue. Yet, each of these articles attempts to highlight additional factors that must be considered within feminist criminology and defining women offenders.

11 CHAPTER APPLICATION PAPER: CHAPTER 13 Analyzing the Chapter Through a Biblical Perspective: After reading the chapter’s information pertaining to feminist perspectives, criminology, and gender studies, then comparing it to real-world perspectives by feminists, it was clear that women with this perspective view the rest of mankind as oppressively dominating. While the feminist perspective does highlight how women’s crimes are view differently and how some portions of the male population abuse their differences. Women with this type of perspective often forget to include how the Holy Bible and God perceives feminism. Therefore, it is important to include God’s word when confronting these significant issues such as criminal behavior and feminism. In the Old Testament, God creates the first man, Adam, and he was designed to have superiority over all creation (Genesis 1:26). Seeing that man needed a partner, God then created a woman, Eve. She was taken from Adam’s rib and given life through God’s words. After the first sin occurred and the couple was expelled from the Garden of Eden, God stated, “To the woman he said, ‘I will surely multiply your pain in childbearing; in pain you shall bring forth children. Your desire shall be contrary to your husband, but he shall rule over you” ( English Standard Version Bible, 2001, Genesis 3:16). At this very moment, God establishes that a male is superior to a woman, however, it does not negate the fact that she is a living being. In the New Testament, God foresees the evil in society and reminds women to not adopt a feminist perspective towards the authority line designed by God. One verse explains, “Wives, submit to your own husbands, as to the Lord. For the husband is the head of the wife even as Christ is the head of the church, his body, and is himself its Savior” ( English Standard Version Bible, 2001, Ephesians 5:22-23). God reminds women that they are asked to submit to their

12 CHAPTER APPLICATION PAPER: CHAPTER 13 husbands as men are supposed to submit to the Lord. In doing so, both man and woman cannot stand strong against the sinful encouragement of the world. God confirms this again within the New Testament by explaining that women are not independent from men, likewise, men are not independent from women (1 Corinthians 11:11). In some situations, men will abuse their God- given authority in terms to justify their reasoning to abuse women or increase their punishments. This behavior is not encouraged by the Bible, but rather the sinful nature of mankind. God warns men, “Husbands, love your wives, and do not be harsh with them” ( English Standard Version Bible, 2001, Colossians 3:19). God tells men that women are special and should be cherished as God cherishes us, regardless of our sins. Therefore, encouraging unfair treatment, abusing women, women standing in independence from men is not encouraged by God, but mankind alone. Another verse reminds us to love and encourage one another rather than destroy or abuse our early authority. “Know this, my beloved brothers: let every person be quick to hear, slow to speak, slow to anger, for the anger of man does not produce the righteousness of God” ( English Standard Version Bible, 2001, James 1:19-21). Conclusion In our current society, we have seen a steep increase in various crimes, especially those that fall in the category of violent crimes. With the rates of crime increasing, it has been seen as a more prominent issue. In order to better understand criminal behavior, criminologists have been focusing their efforts on creating theories that define gender-based dynamics. Since the rise in women offenders in the early 1970s, criminologists and researchers have created a new branch of criminology that is dedicated to understanding women’s involvement in criminal delinquency. Understanding that women have been deemed to commit just as many crimes as males, it has

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13 CHAPTER APPLICATION PAPER: CHAPTER 13 been encouraged that newer, accurate theories need to be established in order to better define criminality in women. Since feminist criminology’s beginning, there have been three established perspectives on why women deviate from their natural behavior and accept a more masculine approach. These theories were socialist, radical, and Marxist (Snipes et al., 2019). Each of these perspectives share the common ideals that men are oppressing women and gender roles are a tool of control. However, new efforts have been pushed to define and explain the gender-based gap in criminal behavior and how it relates to the differences in administered criminal laws (Snipes et al., 2019). When viewing the chapter’s information regarding feminism and gender-based roles in comparison with the Holy Bible, it is understood that God is fair to both men and women. In both the Old and New Testaments of the Bible, God explains that women are to submit to men and men are to submit to God. Then he explains that both women and men cannot survive and be independent without the existence of one another. However, God also warns men to love and cherish women, not abuse their strength and authority over women for violence. However, due to our sin nature, we often ignore God’s written advice and continue to seek what is beneficial for oneself rather than the Christian community.

14 CHAPTER APPLICATION PAPER: CHAPTER 13 References Chesney-Lind M. (2019). Feminist criminology in an era of misogyny. Criminology . (58). 407– 422. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9125.12247 English Standard Version Bible. (2001). ESV Online. https://esv.literalword.com/ Snipes, J. B., Bernard, T. J., & Gerould, A. L. (2019). Vold's Theoretical Criminology. New York: Oxford University Press. Vann, M. (2019). Genre and gender: Reading domestic noir through the lens of feminist criminology. SPECIAL TEXT 23 (57): 1–12. https://doi.org/10.52086/001c.23708 Weil, A. (2022). “I’ll Choose My Own Way”: Delinquent Girls and Boys in Search of Gender Hegemony. Critical Criminology, 30 (2), 365-385. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10612-022- 09607-2

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