Foundations of Sociological

- To simply large amounts of data - To provide basic information about variables in a dataset - To highlight potential relationships between variables - To simply data, graphs and pictures are used - Histograms - Scatter plots - Geographical information system (GIS) - Sociograms Data visualizing: histograms - Graph that shows the frequency of numerical data using rectangles - Height represents how often the variable appears- the distribution frequency of a variable of a variable Data visualizing: frequency distribution - Visual distribution that show the frequency of response in the data - Categorical variables - Integral variables grouped - Age 15-20, 21-26 Scatter plots - The visual representation of the relationship between two-interval-ratio variables - The scatterplot shows a certain association between height and weight Non-existent associations: when the data does not have a pattern

- The average is in the center-the peak - Other data points represent the diversity of the responses Standard deviation To understand standard deviation, you must understand: - Normal curve-Gaussian distribution-representation of what “normally distributed data” looks likes - Follows central limit theorem: randomly sample the same population you will get normal distribution - most of the data will be in the center (average) - Standardized normal curve- to analyze different variables-distribution mathematically assessed on a standardized curve - Mathematical structure: standard deviation 1, mean 0. - Use a formally to standardize your data and asses it on this curve Standard deviation - The average is 0 - Standard deviations are at the bottom +/- points way from the mean (0) - 1-3 standard deviations away from the mean - percentages= the percentage of data underneath the curve and within the standard deviation units - 34% of data is within 1 standard deviation from the mean- 1 deviation away from the average

truth of the research prediction - Expressed in terms of probability or p-value that the hypothesis is true, tested at 95 or 99% probability Testing significance: the test statistic Calculating test statistics - Tells us how many s tandard deviations our sample mean is away from the “population mean- or average” - Must standardize data - Use mathematical calculations to standardize the values in normal curve- mean becomes 0, standard deviation become 1- now we can compare the two means Various test statistics: - Z-scores - F-scores - T-scores Calculate the appropriate test statistics-will tell you the standard deviation of sample mean: - Z-scores - F-scores - T-scores - Determine the probability of sample mean being related to population mean - Develop a probability score - Compare p-value with alpha level - Alpha level is the level of probability needed to fail to reject null- always set as 95% or 99% certainty (0.5, 0.1 standardized) - If p-value is greater than alpha-fail to reject null - If p-value is lower than alpha-reject null

test score tell us what type of GPA they will have? Chi-square analysis and associations - A statistical procedures used to do hypothesis testing on categorical variables - Null hypothesis- does not claim no difference between the variables-instead it states that there is no association between the variables - Chi-square analysis use ‘contingency tables’ - Sorting respondents answers on a chart and comparing their answers between the observed scores and expected scores - Typical responses on survey - - yes, no, undecided, - Strongly agree, agree, disagree - Political affiliation… Null: there is no association between the variables - There are two types of contingency tables: low variability (pattern A) and high variability (pattern B) - We use a chi-square formula to determine in the relationship has no or low variability- based on chance (fail to reject null) - High variability-showing that one variable is influencing the scores of another (reject the null) Reporting methods, findings, and discussions Method sections - The data analysis procedures is outlined in this section - Purpose of methods section- describe how the objectives of your study will be achieved - Including: - Study population and sampling - Data collection - Data analysis- describe the procedure for analyzing the data, the specific instruments used for the analysis, including mathematic techniques and computer software used. Results section - Use graphs, tables, charts, figures, and numbers-as a visual description of the textual summary of the results - Indicate how you analyzed the data, the key findings - In this section of your report- you describe but you do not interpret - You interpet within the discussion section Discussion section - Here you interpret- sharing (in present tense) how your findings compare to the literature findings- in the context of your theoretical framework - Interpretation of results- reiterate the research problem, compare findings with research questions (affirmed or refuted) - Descriptions trend, comparison of groups. Relationship of variables- explain trends, and unanticipated and statistically insignificant findings

- (b) a notion that the available theory may be inaccurate, inappropriate, incorrect, or biased - (c) a need exists to explore and describe the phenomena and to develop theory - (d) the nature of the phenomenon may not be suited to quantitative measures. - Less variation is seen in quantitative introductions. - The deficiencies model of an introduction is a general template for writing a good introduction. It consists of five parts: 1. The research problem 2. Studies that have addressed the problem 3. Deficiencies in the studies 4. The significance of the study for particular audiences 5. The purpose statement - a narrative hook, a term drawn from English composition, meaning words that serve to draw, engage, or hook the reader into the study. - Chapter 8 Quantitative methods involve the processes of collecting, analyzing, interpreting, and writing the results of a study. Specific methods exist in both survey and experimental research that relate to identifying a sample and population, specifying the strategy of inquiry, collecting and analyzing data, presenting the results, making an interpretation, and writing the research in a manner consistent with a survey or experimental study. In this chapter, the reader learns the specific procedures for designing survey or experimental methods that need to go into a research proposal. Checklists provided in the chapter help to ensure that all important steps are included. - Internal validity threats are experimental procedures, treatments, or experiences of the participants that threaten the researcher’s ability to draw correct inferences from the data about the population in an experiment - External validity threats arise when experimenters draw incorrect inferences from the sample data to other persons, other settings, and past or future situations. - statistical conclusion validity that arise when experimenters draw inaccurate inferences from the data because of inadequate statistical power or the violation of statistical assumptions. - construct validity occur when investigators use inadequate definitions and measures of variables. Hurricane Katrina Analysis - As television screens fi lled hour after hour, day after day, with images of Black Americans desperate for assistance after the storm, many viewers could not help but

- Methodological review: compares only the methods for each literature Framing the research Framing research problem and purpose - Research problems drive the research study - Research problem: the increasing incidences of college drinking related injuries amongst male students - Research statement: this research proposes to examine alcohol-drinking behaviors in social setting among college-age american males Research questions : - What are some normative drinking behaviors of young adult American males during social gatherings where alcohol is present? - How do young adult American males define appropriate drinking practices? - How do young adult American males define problem drinking? Qualitative purpose statement - State the participants in the study, and the research site - Use qualitative wording: purpose, intent, objective - “The purpose of this study is” - Narrow your research topic/idea to one concept that is being explored, and provide a definitions for the topic/concept you are studying - Use action verbs to indicate how the learning will take place, such as: describe, understand, develop, examine, discover - Use neutral words “exploring the experience of individuals” not “exploring the exceptional experiences of individuals” - Include data collection methods, analysis and research process

- Not making an inference of an entire population- focusing on a sample of a subgroup of individuals - Exploratory research on this subgroup, developing a representative sample of this group - I.e., black masculinity research-no list of all black men in canada, connecting with those in community - Qualitative research relies more on non-probability sampling - Hard to list data- do not require list of all the population (i.,e prostitutes) - Data not translated into numbers - Quasi-random sample - Ensure sample reflects qualities of a larger group Four non probability sampling procedures 1. Convenience sampling - Available sample- individuals that are easy to access- (professors using their students as research participants) - Often used to get preliminary data on a subjects 2. Purpose sampling - J udgment sampling, using researcher knowledge or expertise - Often selected after preliminary investigation of traits of a group, cannot be generalized wide, rich and deep exploratory data 3. Snowball sampling - Chain referral sampling - Respondent driven sampling - Good for studying sensitive topics, remote populations/individuals of interest - Each participant asked for names of new potential participants 4. Quota sampling - Splitting the population/group into categories, sampling a portion of the population from these categories - Researchers often use a table - Researcher wants to study perceptions of violence among people in the US of people over 65 - Researcher would create an age cohort chart - With people over 65, 45-65, and 25-44 Qualitative data collection methods Data collection methods - Semi-structured interviews - Unstructured interviews - Focus groups - Observations - Diary studies

- Case studies - Ethnographic field work Strategies of inquiry (research design/approaches) - Phenomenological research - Narrative research - Case study - Ethnography Data collection method interviews - Can be deducted on one person, a few or groups (group interviewing) Semi-structured interviews - Research questions/research discussion guide used to guide the interview - Open ended questions- how do you describe the relationship between you and the resident/nurse assistants? - Still flexibility to go off script Unstructured interview - There are no prepared guides or questions, just a conversation Focus groups - When participants are recruited to join a group discussion - Participants represent a specific group of interest, or the target audience (i.e for a product) - Focus on the group interacting with guidance by the researcher-on a specific topic - 1950s focus groups by chrysler plymouth changed car marketing to female audience- after data indicated that wives not husbands bought sedans (minivan style cars) - Focus groups showed that obama's voice- created a deep connection with the audience- marketers circulated more video clips during his election Observational research Researcher goes onsite to a location and observes participants behavior in a natural environment, at one point in time Naturalistic – occurs in the environment where a specific event or behavior is being observed (unobtrusive) no interaction with the participants (join a classroom and study students) Participant Observation – researchers participate in the study itself – observing behaviors while conducting interviews, taking notes and photographs (study skateboarders by attending events, and clubs) Structured observations – researcher observes in a controlled or simulated environment – less natural but can observe limited set of behaviors (bring mothers to a site to feed babies and observe process) Ethnographic fieldwork - Systemic study of people in their natural environment to understand their everyday life, usually longitudinal - Spending extensive time with participants, collect data through participant observation

and face to face interviews - Thick description research - Ethnographic observation: active and passive participant observation - Must become a member of the study group, partake in daily activities, taking field notes. Ethnographic fieldwork - Interviews during ethnographic fieldwork: asking participants questions in their natural environment - Archival research: collect and analyse existing research data, websites, reports on the topic Diary studies - Approach to collect data about a particular group over a period of time - Give participants daily logs to write down their thoughts everyday - Researchers interpret their written logs Remember: phenomenological research - Focus is on developing detailed descriptions of participants experience- specifically the meaning behind certain actions and reactions - Without engaging with the researchers preconceived notions about the participations and their experiences - Investigating an event, phenomenon through peoples lived experiences - Memory-recall research - Experience through the body- stress, identity, corporeality - Example: - The experiences of every war survivor or war veteran are unique - Losing family members to covid19 hasn't been easy - Whats it like to be diagnosed with a terminal disease when a person becomes a parent? Remember narrative approach Treats participants stories themselves are raw data – biographies, news, magazine articles are examples of narrative texts – ● Interpreting stories to understand how people make sense of their experiences ● Often create a dialogue between the stories of the researcher and stories of the participants ● Recording the experiences of an individual or small group to capture lived experiences ● Example: A narrative analysis of COVID-19 told by students – with a focus on analyzing the textual aspect of the stories content – rather than just the lived experiences

Case studies - In depth research to understand one person or group in their real life context- can get a deep assessment of their phenomenon - Small sample size and depth with analysis Research questions and research approaches ● There is a way that research questions are framed depending on the research approach ● Grounded theory – use the word “discover” ● Ethnographies – use the phrase “seek to understand” ● Case Study – use the phrase “explore the process” ● Phenomenology – use the phrase “describe the process” ● Narrative Research – use the phrase “report the stories” Data collection and organizing Managing qualitative data ● What will the data look like after you collect it? ● Visual, audio, textual and other forms – do not turn them into numeric data ● Audio tapes of interviews, notes in notebooks, Photographs or video recordings ● Field notes, transcribed audios ● Data organizing is large and tedious do not wait until all data is collected to make a plan ● Coding – involves editing, sorting, condensing data into relevant themes What do we code in qualitative? - Documents - Case studies - Photographs - audio/video recordings

- Transcripts - Descriptions - Observations Transcribing an interview - Process of getting the interview data ready to be analyzed - Verbatim transcription- every word including pauses and stutters - Intelligent transcription- every word except pauses and filler words - Edit transcription- cleaned up, so grammar makes sense, data is summarized for clarity Qualitative coding process ● Highlight what is relevant and interesting – as tied to research questions ● Organize quotes by theme – by hand– or using computer-based databases like 1. Read data 2. apply certain themes to certain words or sentiments, group codes into more precise themes 3. Make interpretations Types of coding: first round - In vivo coding - codes that are based on the participants own words not your interpretation - Open coding - you break down content into large themes - Structural coding - question-based-codes-each question has a different theme - Values coding- excerpts that pertain to participants values or attitudes - Simultaneous coding - a single excerpt is given multiple codes Types of coding: second round Focused coding - draw more specific sub-themes from your open code theme that was more general Pattern coding - place similar coded excepts under one overarching theme Elaborative coding - compare if your codes are similar with a past research study Selective coding - drawing codes from two or more codes identified in your first round, and use them to develop a theocratic framework Different types of data analysis ● The coding technique that you choose is often determined by the type of data analysis you will pursue ● Grounded theory ● Narrative analysis ● Content Analysis ● Thematic Analysis Coding approaches grounded theory ● exploring a topic to uncover new theories based on real world data,

● data collection and analysis is in a cycle ● recruit small group, collect interview data, transcribe and code, recruit more participants (continue the cycle) ● Compare multiple analyses and develop a theory ● Often used in observational research Types of analysis: narrative analysis ● Method of analys is to understand how people construct stories about their lives ● Involving the participants interpretation of their own life and the researcher's interpretation of the participants narrative ● Data is collected via ● Journals ● Letters, conversations, autobiographies ● Interview transcripts ● Focus groups Types of analysis content analysis ● Focus on analyzing the content of textual data ● Making inferences about the messages in text and the greater social cultural environment ● Different from thematic analysis ● i.e, analyzing a poem focused on the words used in the poem and what they mean ● Poem: about freedom ● Content: freedom is like roses, roses are like guns, the powder surrounds us” o ● Analysis : focus on the meaning involved in relating freedom to roses and roses to guns – and interpreting the “powder” surround us as a feeling of being trapped… etc Types of analysis: thematic analysis ● Focus on deriving overarching themes from the content of textual or non-textual data like audio/video ● Good approach for early, beginner researchers ● Less focused on the meaning of specific words ● i.e., would analyze a poem based on the themes that arise – ● Poem: on freedom ● Thematic analysis: organize content into relevant themes and analyse the significance of these themes ● Themes: derived from the poem: liberation, containment, hope, love, fear ● Often used in observational research Inductive and deductive coding Inductive ‘ground up’

● Derive codes (themes) from the data – there are no preconceived themes ● Great for exploratory research ● i.e., Black masculinity research Deductive ‘top down’ ● Develop a codebook – themes you are looking for before you start coding ● Based on the research questions or existing theory ● At the end of your analysis your codes should be the same or close to expectations ● Good for program evaluation ● i.e., use-value of education videos on race Iterative process- using both inductive and deductive coding: set codes and new codes later Validity and reliability in qualitative research Validity – are your codes capturing what you say it is capturing Reliability – can someone else find what you found, is your study transferable to other contexts? ● Peer debriefing – have a neutral peer edit and provide feedback on your work ● Reflexivity – examine your own judgement and belief systems and how they guided the research ● Intercoder Reliability – ensure that you are reliably interpreting the codes – have more than one researcher code the same data and compare results ● Negative Case Analysis – include an engagement with contradictory or oppositional data on your topic – and see if you can still justify your findings Advantages of coding Increases validity – provides organization to examine the validity of your study Decreases bias – it allows you to be aware of the biases in the data collection process Accurately represent participation – allows you to test if your data represents your participants – allows you to make sure all participants are represented and not just one Increases transparency – creates an organization that other researchers can use to review your analysis

Week Eleven: Qualitative Interviews and Field Work The Qualitative Research Process Qualitative Research

The Inductive Logic of Research in a Qualitative Study

Qualities of Quantitative Research ❖ Natural Setting ❖ Researcher Collects Data Themselves- Examination, Observation, Interviewing ❖ Collect Multiple Forms of Data: Interviews, Observation, Documents ❖ Inductive Analysis ❖ Center Participants Meaning ❖ Emergent Design - Research Process May Shift Over Time ❖ Theoretical Lens- Qualitative Studies are Structured by Following Certain Concepts: Culture, Gender, Race, Class Difference ❖ Interpretive ❖ Holistic

Qualitative Research Paradigm ❖ Qualitative Research Process Rests of Specific Theoretical Assumptions ❖ Theory Provides the Explanation for: Human Behaviour, Institutions, Social Organization (why things are happening) ❖ Roots in Cultural Anthropology and American Sociology ❖ Understand Particular Social Situation, Events, and Interaction Through Observation- Capturing the Human Experience and Interactions ❖ Critiquing Language ❖ Practices and Rituals ❖ Determining Patterns Cultural Anthropology and Qualitative Research ❖ Early 20th century → Distinct Discipline of Sociology Emerged→ Drawing from Anthropological Approaches to Research ❖ Sociology Draws from Cultural Anthropological Method of Ethnography ❖ Sociology Focuses on Group Behaviour and its Relation to Culture at the Level of Social Structures and Institutions → Solution Oriented fix Social Problems ❖ Anthropology Focuses on the Individual Level of Culture Postmodern Framework ❖ Late 20th century turn→ Critique of Post Positivism→ Emergence of Interpretivism ❖ No Objective Truth ❖ No Scientific/Historical Truth/ Objective Truth ❖ Science and Technology used to Establish Power, Not Human Progress (Progress for Few and Disadvantage for Many ) Phenomenology ❖ Study of Human Experience from a Participant’s POV ❖ Not Trying to Explain a wider Context or Phenomenon→ Explaining an Individual’s Experience in a Specific Setting ❖ Data Collection Method: Semi-Structured, Unstructured Interviews, Diaries Exploring how Individuals make sense of their World→The Meaning and Classifications they use Interactionism ❖ Developed by George Herbert Mead → Exploring Collective Behaviors ❖ Understanding of Individual Interaction s by→ Examining How They Interact With Other People and The World Around Them How Meaning is Developed Through: Social Action, Collective Interactions and Reactions ❖ Goffman’s Notion of: The Frontstage and Backstage→ Interaction Changes in Public/Private spaces→ We Have Different Sides of Ourselves that We Show ❖ Data Collection Method: Participant Observation + Interviews to Capture Social Interaction

Critical Theory ❖ Critiquing and Changing Society as a whole → roots in Karl Marx ’s work and Frankfurt School, Foucault, Franz Fanon ❖ How The Construction of Knowledge and the Organization of Power in Society → Lead to Subjugation ❖ Concerned with Justice For: Race, Class, Religion, Sexuality Related Issues (i.e., How Educational institutions Marginalize Indigenous knowledge→ How that Impacts Social Regard of→ Indigenous Peoples, Awareness of Health and Environmental Issues, and Indigenous Policies) Feminist Theories: lens to Investigate the ways that→ Sex, Gender, Race, and Class → work together to create→ Structural Inequalities, Women having Epistemologies, Feminist Principles Collaboration, Power analysis, Reflexivity, and Advocacy ( Kim Crenshaw → Harriet Martineau→ Dorothy Smith ) Critical Race Theory: Race and Racism institutionalized → within Social and Legal Systems, to create Unequal Access to→ Power, Resources and Well-Being (Kim Crenshaw→ W.E.B. Dubois) Postcolonial/Decolonial Theory: Guides Researchers to Account for→ the Colonial legacies and Patterns in → the Research Setting and phenomenon/topic→ Undoing the Colonial Patterns within→ the Research Practice A Qualitative Study on Doctor-Nurse Interactions Critical Theory: How the Hierarchy between Doctor-Nurse Impact their Interaction, as well as the Interactions of Race, Gender, Class. Interactionism: How Doctors and Nurses Interact in their Shared Workplace, The Meaning Each party Attached to their Interactions, Comparing formal/informal Interactions. Phenomenology: How individual Doctors and Nurses make Sense of Their Experiences in their Workplace, Classifications they Place on their individual Working Lives, and search for Common Themes between Groups. Afrocentric/Indigenous Theories: What are Alternative models for Doctor-Nurse Relationship that Ascribe to Afrocentric and Indigenous principles, and the Impact on Healthcare practices.

Strategies of Inquiry Overarching Research Approaches that dictate: Data collection, Analysis and Writing ❖ Narrative: Collected Stories of→ an Individual Life to → reveal an Individual Perspective on→ the Lived Experiences of→ One or More individuals. This information is Retold, by the Researcher → into a Narrative Chronology . The (collaborative) narrative Combines→ views of the Participant’s life with → views of the Researcher’s life . ❖ Phenomenology: Describes an experienced Phenomenon as Philosophical and a Method of→ Participant Inquiry that Identifies the essence of The Human Experience to→ develop Patterns and Relationships of Meaning → collected by Extensive and Prolonged engagement with a Small Group of participants→ that Describe the Phenomenon to a Researcher who is→ Separate From Own Views and Perspectives → to Completely Understand those of the Participants. ❖ Ethnography: Identifies an Intact , Culture-Sharing Group , in a Natural Setting and→ Studies How the group Develops→ Shared Patterns of Behaviour→ Over A Long-Period of Time by→ a researcher: Collecting, Primarily, Observational and Interview Data through→ a Flexible, continuously Adapting Process , in response To→ The Ever-Evolving Lives of Participants ❖ Case Study: The researcher Explores in-depth a Program, Event, Activity, Process, or One or More Individuals→ cases are bounded by Time and Activity → researchers collect detailed information using a Variety of Data Collection procedures over a Sustained Period of time. ❖ Grounded Theory: The researcher derives a General, Abstract Theory of→ a Process, Action, or Interaction → grounded in the Views of The Participant → process involves using Multiple Stages of Data Collection and→ the Refinement and Interrelationship of Categories of Information → two primary characteristics of this design are the Constant Comparison of Data with Emerging Categories, and Theoretical Sampling of Different Groups to→ Maximize the Similarities and Differences of Information. Other Ways to Conduct Studies: Participatory Action Research , or Discourse Analysis

The Researcher’s Role ❖ Sustained and intensive Engagement with Participants ❖ Understand Connection between Researcher and Participants ❖ Justify Research Site ❖ Indicate Steps Taken to Obtain Ethics form the Ethics Review Board and Obtain Permission from Gatekeepers Sampling Procedures ❖ Participants are Selected Purposefully → most often not randomly selected ❖ Using Non-Probability Sampling Non-Probability Sampling Methods

Qualitative Data Collection Procedures ❖ Documents ❖ Audio-Visual Materials ❖ Observation ❖ Interviews Documents: Public documents, meeting minutes, newspapers, private documents like diaries, researcher journaling Advantages→ Obtain language and words of participant , convenient to access, saves time no transcribing needed Limitations→ information may not be shareable to the public, materials may be incomplete , inconsistencies based on articulate nature of participant Audio-Visual Materials: includes photographs, videotapes, art objects, film, physical trace evidence (footprints in snow), stimuli Advantages→ Unobtrusive method of collecting data – does not disturb the participants in their natural setting, Allows Participants to Share their realities, Creative Approac h Limitations→ may be difficult to interpret, may not be accessible to the public, presence of a photographer/observer may disrupt natural response Interviews: Types→ Face-to-Face in groups or One-on-One, Telephone Interview, Focus Group, Email internet Interview Advantages→ useful when participants cannot be directly observed , grab historical information about participant s, research can guide line of questioning Limitations→ indirect information filtered by the researcher, responses ascribe to a controlled setting not in a natural setting , researchers presence can create bias Semi-Structured Interviews: Research question/Research discussion guide used to Guide the

Interview Open-Ended Questions: How do you describe the relationship between you and the residents/nurse Assistants? Unstructured Interviews: There are no prepared guides or questions , just Conversation . Design and Execution: Interview protocol – for asking questions and recording answers Set for 45 minutes, 1 hour, 2-3 hours (long interviews Have limitations) Interview Questions: 10-25 questions Probing Questions: follow-up questions for more detail and to elaborate Recording Answers: Record interviews to Transcribe later, physically Write answers during session, and Videotaping Ethical Interviewing: The role of researcher as the data collection instrument – participants' responses can be misinterpreted and skewed based on researchers' lens. Observation (Fieldwork): Types→ Complete Participant (researcher role is concealed) Observer as Participant (role of researcher is known) Participant as Observer (observation role secondary to participant role) Complete Observer (researcher observes without participating) Advantages→ researcher has first hand experience with the participants, researcher can record information as it occurs, unusual events can be observed during observation, useful in exploring topics that are uncomfortable for participants to discuss Limitations→ researcher can be seen as intrusive , may not be able to report all that is observed, researcher may misinterpret observation, must use different skills to build rapport with children , different cultural groups and people with special need Field Research: Gathering primary data from natural environment to observe how people behave → small sample size→(i.e. Coffee shop, homeless shops) Approaches→ Participant Observation, Ethnography, and Case Study

Participant Observation: a research methodology where the researcher is immersed in the day-to- day activities of the participants. The objective is usually to record conduct under the widest range of possible settings (PO): in which researchers join people and participate in a group’s routine activities for the purpose of observing them within that context → This method lets researchers study a naturally occurring social activity without imposing artificial or intrusive research devices → like fixed questionnaire questions, onto the situation → A researcher might go to great lengths to get a firsthand look into→ a trend, institution, or behavior. Researchers temporarily put themselves into “native” roles and record their observations Example: comic writer wanted an insider view of white-collar work – pretended to work in an agency for two weeks - Acted like a participant – observed if anyone noticed him. Illuminated the intimate nature of white-collar work culture, connecting with the themes of production, belonging, alienation Covert Observation Role: the participants are unaware they are being observed ,( r ole playing, making contacts, applying for a job, networking → (cannot get too involved but have to be involved enough). Ethical When→ permission is granted from gatekeeper and participants are not involved (minimum wage work research) Ethnography and Institutional Ethnography: systematic observation of the entire community Example: living and working amongst a group, specific setting for extended period of time, meaningful duration Institutional Ethnography: ( Dorothy Smith ) → observation + analysis of institutional documents and processes that govern setting and participant behavior → Local level (individual experience) and Extralocal Level (institutional processes that direct behavior, constrain, repress and offer mobility) Observation Designing and Executing: ❖ Select Field Site ❖ Select Role of Researcher ❖ Record Field Notes→unstructured or semistructured (preliminary questions can guide observations) ❖ Systemic Observational Protocol → descriptive notes, reflective notes and demographic

information Ethical Observation: Critiques: ❖ Long term nature creates bond with researcher and participants that can bias the Findings ❖ Respecting Privacy can be Challenging ❖ Extra attention to the Psychological wellbeing of participants ❖ History of Appropriation and Misinterpretation ❖ Western gaze on Non-Western World, history of Othering racial/ethnic Groups Qualitative Biases Participant: Acquiescence Bias (choose to agree to be nice or to end interview) → Social Desirability Biases (replying inaccurately to be liked) → Habituation Bias (providing the same answer to similar questions) → Sponsor Bias (influenced by the status of the researcher or the study sponsors) Researcher: Confirmation Bias (omits findings to make data align with their desired outcomes) → Question-Order/Leading Bias (order or wording of questions is bias) Coding the process of organizing the material into chunks or segments of text in order to develop a general meaning of each segment ❖ Organizing materials into groups of texts and then giving them meaning/code ❖ Setting codes ❖ Perspectives held by subjects ❖ Subjects ways of thinking about people ❖ Activity codes ❖ Relationship and social structure codes ❖ Preassigned codes Coding Types-First Round:

In Vivo Coding: codes that are based on the participants own words not your interpretation Open Coding: you break down content into large themes Structural Coding: question-based codes → each question has a different theme Values Coding: excerpts that pertain to participants values and attitudes Simultaneous Coding: a single excerpt is given multiple codes Coding Types- Second Round: Focused Coding: draw more specific sub-themes from your open code theme that was more general Pattern Coding: place similar coded accepts under overarching theme Elaborate Coding: compare if your codes are similar with a past research study Selective Coding: drawing codes from two or more codes identified in your first round, and use them to develop a theoretical framework Reliability and Validity Qualitative Validity: researcher Check for the Accuracy of the Findings From Participants and Other Researchers Verification Process Trustworthiness→ Authenticity→ Credibility Strategies: ❖ Triangulate themes from different Data Sources ❖ Participant Checking ❖ Thick Description of Setting - more realistic ❖ Clarify Researcher Bias ❖ Present Negative Information ❖ Spend a Long Time in the field ❖ Peer Debriefing ❖ External Auditor

Qualitative Reliability: researchers' approach is consistent across different researchers and different projects → Must Document Steps in research Procedures, Collections, and Analysis → Check the Accuracy of Transcripts→ Cross-Check Codes→ Intercoder Agreement Generalizability ❖ Used in a Limited Way in qualitative research ❖ Intent is not to Generalize, but to Describe the How and What of an Event, Conext, Phenomenon ❖ Qualitative researchers Generalize from Their Specific Cases to other Related Cases Week Twelve: Afrocentric and Indigenous Research Eurocentric Researching - Colonial- colonized tradition from the 15th century (precolonial inquiries on african, asian, and indigenous cultures) - European gaze, racially white gaze, and often male gaze on the human condition and social world - Excluding African, Middle Eastern, Eastern, and South Asian, indigenous people from authority to contribute to knowledge, research, and their histories - Reinforced racial hierarchies - Insufficient model to understand other ethnicities and cultures - Only one of many ways of researching, educating, & understanding how we live together as a people - Continued - Way of seeing that is rooted in the geographic economic and political dominance of Europe and its empire in the modern period - Ties into the notion of Orientalism - Continued - Scientific method- understanding its pros and cons - Other methods, mixed methods, and approaches for understanding Afrocentric research process Afrocentrism - Emerging philosophy to create and interpret data - Uses a circular approach rather than linear approach to history and knowledge generation - Contrast with the positivist approach to objectivity, reliability and validity- incorporates community in all stages - Ensures that the process of knowledge production does not impede in the well-being of people being researched

Afrocentrism - Emerged 19th-century African diasporic intellectuals in response to decolonization in Africa and the end of slavery in Americas - Contesting 500 years of European intellectual and physical domination vis a vis slavery and colonialism - Rewriting colonial history-power and self-determination, de-naturalizing European dominance - Black Athena: african and Asiatic influence on ancient greek culture - They came before Columbus: Matthew de costa, clack conquistadors, black explorers, and deities - - Afrocentric framework by Molefi Asante - Afrocentrism formally developed in 1987 by Molefi Asante - -Philosophy developed by peoples of African descent to represent a set of values and beliefs to approach education, research and daily life - First conceptualized by african diaspora - Involves two key principles - Ma’at- a quest for justice, truth, harmony - Nomma- knowledge is a vehicle for improving human relations - In the context of research, the Afrocentric method guides research - Responsible for uncovering hidden racist theories embedded in current methodologies - Works to legitimize African ideals and values as a valid approach to examining data - Ensure that research is conducted from an Afrocentric “place”- autobiographical approach no “objective observer” The object of Afrocentric research Black experience beyond pain and suffering – capturing resilience, self-determination, agency of peoples racialized as Black overtime Movement beyond problem-centered, deficit approaches studying Black Communities Provide an alternative framework for understanding the human condition, and human suffering African research Principles - Relational- relationships are built and valued - Participatory- participants contribute to all stages - Collaborative- Researcher not viewed as expert - Decolonial- challenges western methods that neglect and devalue African knowledge - Holistic- considers environmental, spiritual, historical, political , social factors - Humanr- Puts people at the center of research and seeks to increase well-being and community building African Approaches to Data Collection - Storytelling- oral histories- sacred afro-indigenous practice of passing knowledge- to preserve African values

- Dare method - Talking circles - Decolonised interviewing - Work with group of participants to design and lead the interview structure; open dialogue facilitated by the participants not the researcher - self-praise/poetry method- asking participants to develop songs or poems prising themselves - Local Ethics approach - Use local ethics in all stages of the research process, including approval from family and community - Mixed Methods - Incorporate indigenous and Western research approaches, qualitative and quantitative, show gaps in both, and cross-assess for depth - Munyai - Using an intermediary when African-centered research methods - African research methodology - Valuing African techniques and activities - Afrikology- a philosophy that promotes balanced and sustained relations with people of other cultures, dead and alive; treating mo one culture or knowledge system superior to another - Sankofa methodology- learning from the past, past African history, culture, identity, to move forward into the future - Indigenous research methodology - Valuing indigenous techniques and activities - Ubuntu research approach - Co-creational knowledge with local people and language, no deception, harm - community-centered/collective approach - Empowerment/capability research - Acknowledging power and capacity-giving community tools to lead research on themselves Afrocentric Validity and reliability criteria By ruth Reverie– to be a legitimate research, the study needs to satisfy these 5 criteria 1. Ukweli 2. Utulivu 3. Uhaki 4. Ujamaa 5. Kujitoa Ukweli - Grounding research in the experiences of the community being researched - Where the community is given the authority to determine what is true - Research objectives must emerge from the needs of the community the new information and actions they need to enhance social welfare and survival

Kujitoa - The researcher is also a part of the research activity with biased interests - Pre-research.. Introspection; who am i? What brings me to this work? - Post Research- retrospection: check if they fairly interpreted the data without bias, after the research have your opinions changed? - Move away from the divide between the personal and academic Understanding justice history - Embracing communalism as central to research process-seeking community validation - Community members have the ultimate authority, to verify with Afrocentric scholars and the community of participants - Established by embracing an Afrocentric place Uhaki - The researcher must be mindful of the welfare of all participants - Since the beginning of Western research -the humanity of racial and ethnic minorities has been questioned - The Afrocentric approach to research does not treat race as a past issue, but a central factor that impacts how we engage with, interpret and assess individuals, spaces and communities - Afrocentric Research - Advance research on black people and communities. And also all individuals and groups- to have a more holistic account of participant experiences and the impact of the social, political, and cultural context Data Analysis in African Methodology - Co-analysis with participant - Researcher analyzes by themselves - Participants analyze by themselves - Theory-building approach-intention of analysis is to build theory Research using an african/afrocentric methodology - Research on how afrocentric methods can be to research indigenous african culture and complement qualitative research methods - Afrofuturism - Apartheid in the contemporary period - Cultural appropriation - Neocolonialism in Africa - Women’s Rights and health care - Effectiveness of NGO’s - Black canadian history/black american history - African Diasporic culture - Artificial intelligence and race - Indigenous Knowledge - Indigenous knowledge and methodologies existed since the beginning of civilization

- Hero, on turtle island- indigenous knowledge is the teachings and ways of life of the incan, metis, first nations people - Fluid and dynamic-understood as “living Knowledge” - Indigenous Research Cycle - Challenging western hegemony to reclaim sovereignty in the research space - There are volumes of quantitative and qualitative research on indigenous health and life- with no engagement with the peoples or indigenous cultures - Proposing a “weaving methodology” Research and the indian act - The indian Act- racist sexist system that creates a colonial foundation of research inquiry - Canada and US indian act late 1800s Redefined native population in canada to “indians” - defines as any male people of indian blood - Women only had status if married to indian status men, lost status if they married white or other men - Indian status brought specific resources and oppression: reserves, residential schools - Bans on sun dance and potlatch until 1951 revisions to indian act - Indigenous models of governance replaced with a band system-women not allowed to participate - Were assessed for having a “good moral character as a wife” before allowed to inherit marital property - Indigenous women fought for change Indigenous Research methodology - Western research on indigenous people- focus on their identity and lives as status indians (a racial category) - Necessary to adopt indigenous research methodology when inquiring into the experiences of native people 1. Recognition of colonial past and settler colonial impact on indigenous peoples 2. Resist colonial narratives 3. Resurgence of indigenous ways of knowing and being 4. Insider/outsider research 5. Preventing research extraction indigenous self-determination 6. Combating tradition power dynamics Indigenous data collection methods - Storytelling - Personal reflection - Visiting

- Charing circles - Ceremony - Art creation - Dance Indigenous research principles - Community led - Personal - Based on relationships with community members - Focused on resiliency and resistance - Elevates indigenous voices, peoples and perspectives - Compensaiton - Consent and shared ownership - Follows cultural protocols Class Reading: torres strait islanders in australia - neo -colonial environment- ongoing colonization of frist nations peoples “settler colonial country” - No treaties made with indigenous people like new zealand or canada - Interested in how to indigenize quantitative health research - Propose a “weaving methodology” research at interface” - Merging of indigenous and western research approaches to develop new understandings innovative findings on human life, suffering and change Research at the interface - Coined by maori academic - Coming together of indigenous knowledges and methodologies with western research methods - Approach to enable the knowledge systems to be equal partners - Possibilities for innovation-where new knowledge and methods can arise - Called “two eyed seeing” by Mi’kmaw frist nations of canada - Guides researchers to “weave” back and forth between worldviews to develop a deeper vision of the context and solutions to problems - Called a third space by scholars of colour where different knowledge systems engage - Australian aboriginals-cultural interface between indigenous and scientific knowledge, called Ganma Research at the interface - In addition to two knowledge systems coming together- Ganma - Also involves mutual respect shared benefit, human dignity and interest in discovery - Term Durithunga - word in murri communities in australia - to signify the integration of indigenous leader ship into the research process

- Indigenous standpoint theory- developing theory and pursing research from indigenous experience and identity - developing theory and pursing research from indigenous experience and identity Indigenist Research - Focused on/responds to the ongoing colonization, oppression, transgenerational trauma and grief 1. Resistance as emancipatory 2. Political integrity 3. Privileging indigenous voices Decolonzation- Researchers to regonize how colonization has and continues to create research inqulaities-through invisible and ngrained Whiteness Yuri Ingaminthii- requite researcher to respect aboriginal resilience and livelihood -Quantitaive approach- Indigenous lens on statistical data, decolonization of current western scientific hegemony over indigenous statistics - Qualitative approach - Indigenous methods are largley used in qualitative research because of their focus on narrative, human experience, subjective reality Indigenist Research weaving methodology - Weaving - aboriginal tradition - of baskets, clothing fishing nets, tools - Metaphor of coiled basket taking two knowledge systems of knowing, being and doing - Selection of strands - Stitch strands together from both coils - Shape and structure coils into a new interlocked patter Identifying issue with western approach - Case: Australian children are treated differently for burns injuries - Western quantitative approach- - No consultation with aboriginal experts - Focuses on deficit model of health and wellbeing - Not including indigenous children into category of australian - No inquiry into the historical and present factors that disproportionality impact indigenous children - Tendency to blame indigentity- for the indigenous condition - Colonialism whiteness, racism implicit in western framework - Acknowledging that the variables and hypotheses of indigenous children, and other australian children, burns injury, hospital stay— come from a western deficit model Using the weaving methodology - Strength based approach - understanding the inequities in how children experience burns - Descriptive statistics used to provide an overview of burns injuries in australia ( means,

standard deviations, 95% confidence intervals) - Inferential statistics used to explore if being indigenous is correlated with more burn injuries pearsons chi-square used to test statistical significance - Stages cox regression- explore correlation between being indigenous and increased hisptical length Examples Hypothesis test: Hypothesis testing is a statistical method used to determine if there is enough evidence in a sample data to draw conclusions about a population. Hypothesis testing example: Based on the type of data you collected, you perform a one-tailed t-test to test whether men are in fact taller than women. This test gives you: an estimate of the difference in average height between the two groups. Research problem : Research problem: the increasing incidences of college drinking related injuries amongst male students - Research problem definition begins with identifying a broad problem area, followed by learning more about the problem, identifying the variables and how they are related, considering practical aspects, and finally developing the problem statement. Research statement : This research proposes to examine alcohol-drinking behaviours in social setting among college-age American male - Provide a summary of your research. Put in background material to give the context/relevance/significance of your research. List major findings, outcomes, and implications. Describe both current and planned (future) research. Qualitative research question: Example: (A) How do early adolescent females read literature that falls outside the realm of fiction? (B)What is the most popular topic that these adolescents consume outside of fiction? •Finders’s (1996) central question begins with how; it uses an open-ended verb, read ; it focuses on a single concept, the literature or teen magazines; and it mentions the participants, adolescent females, as the culture-sharing group. Notice how the author crafted a concise, single question that needed to be answered in the study. It is a broad question stated to permit participants to share diverse perspectives about reading the literature (in text p.127) UTULIVU JUSTICES - Example, race and IQ – perpetual exclusion of any Black theorists and scientists from the topic OBSERVATION: FIELD RESEARCH - Example: why individuals in the crack smoking culture engage in the risky activity of sharing pipes? Exploratory research – perfect for fieldwork PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION - comic writer wanted an insider view of white- collar work – pretended to work in an agency for two weeks

ETHNOGRAPHY & INSTITUTIONAL ETHNOGRAPHY- Example lliving and working amongst a group, specific setting for extended period of time, meaningful duration Examples of eurocentric researching errors: •Race and IQ •Asian women and passivity •Black women and welfare (Moynihan) •Indigenous People and Drug use Week 13: sharing qualitiative research Sharing your findings - So you have collected and coded the data? - Interpretation involves a specific style-the choices you make are based on: your audience, justice for your participants - Research is about contributing to collective knowledge building: - Journal article - Report to an orgnaization - Testimony to legislative group - Presentation for community event - Thesis for degree Planning dissemination Answer the following questions: - Who are you targeting to communicate your findings to? - Who needs to hear the results of your study? - What do you hope your audience will take away after learning about your study? Planning dissemination - We must anticipate the expectations of our target audience -