Lecture7_Evolution4_History1_6Sep

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Evolution, Natural Selection, and Adaptation 4
Assignment 1: Field Notebook 1. Observe live animal (in person) for at least 1 hour (or multiple sessions for a total of 1 hour). Neatly, note the species, number of animals, date, time, location, thoughts, and questions about behavior. Note any other information that may be pertinent to the behaviors you see. 2. Develop 2 questions about behavior. 3. Develop 2 hypotheses for each question (4 hypotheses total). 4. Develop 2 predictions to test each hypotheses (8 predictions total). 5. Make an organized ethogram of at least 5 behaviors and their definitions. 6. Explain how you could test a prediction (making sure you distinguish between predictions). 7. Describe expected/hypothetical results and note whether they refute or support the hypothesis. Important note: Under no circumstances is it acceptable to do anything that can possibly harm any creature. Due 10/20 3:00 p.m. on Canvas
Exam 1 is Fri. 9/15 in class • Review session after class this Friday (9/8 ) Thurs. 9/14 5 pm on zoom • Study guide posted in this week’s Module on Canvas • Don’t wait to set up a meeting if you need clarification on a concept
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B > C C > B Adaptive (greatest fitness benefit)
Northern bobwhite quail • Form groups called coveys • Benefits of grouping? o increased survival - more likely to detect predators • Costs of grouping? o more competition for food What is the adaptive group size (maximizes B – C )? Are observed group sizes adaptive? Example: Optimal group size in quail
Costs: Competition for food (distance traveled) Example: Optimal group size in quail Benefits: Survival
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Costs: Competition Benefits: Survival A. 3 B. 11 C. 15 D. 20 E. Don’t know What is the optimal group size?
Benefits: survival Costs: competition for food (distance traveled) B – C is maximized when group size is 11 birds Example: Optimal group size in quail
Example: Optimal group size in quail
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The Cost-Benefit Approach can show which traits are adaptive & demonstrate how an animal’s behavior increases fitness
Mobbing Behavior Hans Kruuk
Cost s: Time, energy, make self conspicuous, can get caught, have left young unattended Benef its: Distract predators so they are less efficient at finding eggs & young With your neighbor: Costs and benefits of mobbing behavior
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• Fitness measure = egg survival • Hypothesis: Mobbing is an adaptation to predation • Prediction: Effect of mobbing on fitness
• Fitness measure = egg survival • Hypothesis: Mobbing is an adaptation to predation • Prediction: Mobbing will reduce predation on eggs • (increase egg survival) Effect of mobbing on fitness
Benefits: distract predators so they are less efficient at finding eggs & young
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A. Yes B. No Can we conclude that mobbing is adaptive? Suggests mobbing is adaptive, but didn’t evaluate costs
The Cost-Benefit Approach can show which traits are adaptive & demonstrate how an animal’s behavior increases fitness We can also test these hypotheses by taking a Comparative Approach
Comparative Method • A technique used to test hypotheses about a trait’s evolution based on comparisons among species of known evolutionary relationships • Based on two assumptions – Divergent evolution – Convergent evolution
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• Related species will exhibit differences in attributes if they face different selection pressures, despite common ancestry (similar genetic heritage) Hypothesis: Mobbing is an adaptation to predation that evolved in multiple species due to divergent evolution Prediction: Divergent evolution
• Closely related species will exhibit differences in attributes if they face different selection pressures, despite common ancestry (similar genetic heritage) Hypothesis: Mobbing is an adaptation to predation that evolved in multiple species due to divergent evolution Prediction: A. G ulls that are closely related to black-headed gulls but experience low predation will not exhibit mobbing behavior B. G ulls that are closely related to black-headed gulls and also experience high predation will exhibit mobbing behavior C. Species that are unrelated to black-headed gulls but experience low predation will not exhibit mobbing behavior D. Species that are unrelated to black-headed gulls and also experience high predation will exhibit mobbing behavior Divergent evolution
• Compare ground-nesting gulls (high predation) with cliff- nesting gulls (low predation) As predicted, cliff-nesting kittiwakes do not mob predators do not mob mob Divergent evolution
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Convergent evolution
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Convergent evolution • Unrelated species that share similar selection pressures will converge on a similar adaptive response, despite their different genetic heritage Smilodon - felid Thylacosmilus - marsupial
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Hypothesis: Mobbing is an adaptation to predation that evolved in multiple species due to convergent evolution Prediction: Convergent evolution
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Hypothesis: Mobbing is an adaptation to predation that evolved in multiple species due to convergent evolution Prediction: A. G ulls that are closely related to black-headed gulls but experience low predation will not exhibit mobbing behavior B. G ulls that are closely related to black-headed gulls and also experience high predation will exhibit mobbing behavior C. Species that are unrelated to black-headed gulls but experience low predation will not exhibit mobbing behavior D. Species that are unrelated to black-headed gulls and also experience high predation will exhibit mobbing behavior Top Hat: Convergent evolution
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As predicted, species such as bank swallows and California ground squirrels mob predators Convergent evolution
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History and Tinbergen’s 4 Questions
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Post-Darwin extremism: George Romanes (circa 1882) • Explored implications of intellectual continuity & the evolution of emotions • Highly anecdotal & anthropomorphic • Backlash against his subjectivism led to B h i i
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Morgan’s canon (1894) • “In no case may we interpret an action as the outcome of the exercise of a higher physical faculty if it can be interpreted as the outcome of one which stands lower in the psychological scale.” • Behavior must be explained in the simplest way that is consistent with the evidence, without the assumption that human emotions or mental abilities are involved • Anti-anthropomorphism C. Lloyd Morgan
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History of the Study of Animal Behavior Charles Darwin’s contribution classical ethology behaviorism & comparative psychology behavioral ecology
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Comparative Psychology & Behaviorism • North America • Systematic, experimental study of behavior o Controlled laboratory setting with standardized testing conditions o Studied only quantifiable behaviors o Studies included large sample sizes • Emphasis on stimuli & response o Main interest was the development of behavior in animals o Learning : the modification of behavior as a result of experience
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J.B. Watson (~1925) “Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select - -- doctor, lawyer, merchant, chief and yes, even beggar man and thief, regardless of his talents, peculiarities, tendencies, abilities, vocations and race of his ancestors."
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Nature vs. Nurture
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• General Laws of Learning • Limited range of study species o Intellectual continuity o Therefore, animals are appropriate models for human behavior o Ultimate goal was to predict & control human behavior Comparative Psychology & Behaviorism
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Associative Learning • Behavior is altered by the formation of associations with events • Classical Conditioning - An individual learns to associate an involuntary response and a stimulus o Pavlov’s dogs: Pavlov (a scientist) would ring a bell before giving dogs a meal. The dogs would salivate when given their meal. After a certain time, the dogs would salivate when the bell rang, without the appearance of food
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Comparative Psychology & Behaviorism Classical (Pavlovian) conditioning •occurs when a novel stimulus is paired with an existing stimulus
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Associative Learning • Operant Conditioning - An individual learns to associate a behavioral response with a meaningful stimulus • Examples: teaching your dog to ‘sit’ on command, snake moving to a target, polar bear opening his/her mouth, tiger holding still for blood draw
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Operant conditioning • An association is formed between an animal’s behavior & some event in its environment Comparative Psychology & Behaviorism
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E.L. Thorndike (1874-1949) Puzzle box Skinner box B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) Comparative Psychology & Behaviorism
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We still use versions of these today
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How long it took successful raccoons to open a solution over time
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How many behaviors successful raccoons exhibited over time
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• Contributions o Scientifically rigorous Objective, Quantitative, Statistical analyses o Many of their Laws of Learning were adequate predictors of how animals interact with their environments • Weaknesses o Dogmatic emphasis on environmental influence Largely due to studying few species in arbitrary situations o Not grounded in evolutionary theory Comparative Psychology & Behaviorism
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Often motivate animals with food, but… Temperature Color Aversion & Fitness Consequences Escape / Safety
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