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1 Final (a) Perceptual Learning: Perceptual learning involves the improvement of sensory discrimination through experience and practice. An example is a person becoming better at distinguishing different shades of colors after repeatedly participating in a color-matching game. (b) Stimulus-Response Learning: Stimulus-response learning, also known as classical conditioning, involves associating a neutral stimulus with a response through repeated pairings. An example is Pavlov's dog learning to salivate at the sound of a bell because the bell was consistently paired with food. (c) Motor Learning: Motor learning pertains to acquiring and refining motor skills through practice (Huang et.al, 2019). An example is learning to ride a bike, where initially conscious effort is required, but with practice, it becomes a more automatic and smooth process. (d) Relational Learning: Relational learning involves understanding the connections between different elements or concepts. An example is learning that a certain smell is

2 associated with a specific place, creating a memory of the relationship between the smell and the location. Q 2 The basal ganglia play a role in reward-based learning and reinforcement. The mesolimbic pathway that involves the ventral tegmental area (VTA) to the nucleus accumbens, is linked with the pleasure and reward aspects of reinforcement, while the mesocortical pathway, involving VTA to the prefrontal cortex, is involved in decision-making related to reinforcement. The prefrontal cortex, especially the orbitofrontal cortex, evaluates rewards and punishments to guide behavior. For instance, in operant conditioning, the basal ganglia help to reinforce actions that lead to positive outcomes, like pressing a lever for a food reward. Q 3 Patient H.M. had profound anterograde amnesia, unable to form new long-term memories, due to bilateral removal of his medial temporal lobes. He also had some retrograde amnesia for events before surgery. However, his procedural memory (learning skills) and short-term memory remained intact. H.M.'s case highlighted the critical role of the hippocampus in forming new declarative memories while sparing non-declarative memory systems. Q 4 Relational learning involves understanding connections between different items or concepts. The hippocampus is critical in forming and retrieving relational memories. For example, remembering that person A is friends with person B and that person B is a colleague of person C relies on the hippocampus. Unlike other forms of learning, which might involve

3 one specific stimulus or response, relational learning focuses on the relationships between stimuli or concepts. Q 5 Long-term potentiation (LTP) entails strengthening synaptic connections, often in the hippocampus, through repeated stimulation. Physiological changes are increased neurotransmitter release, greater receptor sensitivity, and also the growth of new synaptic connections, all of which cause enhanced signal transmission between neurons (Carlson & Birkett, 2021). Q 6 Seizure disorders result from abnormal, excessive neural activity in the brain. They are caused by various factors which includes genetic predisposition, brain injury, infections, and developmental abnormalities. Neurons become hypersensitive and fire in synchronized bursts, leading to seizures. Seizures treatment often includes antiepileptic medications that target neural excitability (Carlson & Birkett, 2021). For example, drugs like carbamazepine work by blocking voltage-gated sodium channels, preventing more neuronal firing and controlling seizures. Additionally in more severe cases, surgical options such as removing the seizure focus or using devices like vagus nerve stimulators may be considered to help manage seizures and improve the individual's quality of life. Q 7 In Down syndrome, there's an extra copy of chromosome 21, leading to brain abnormalities like reduced dendritic branching and synaptic density. Alzheimer's disease is characterized by amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles, particularly in the hippocampus and cortex. Both conditions involve cognitive impairments and memory deficits. However,

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4 Alzheimer's primarily affects older adults and is associated with distinct pathological features. Q 8 Huntington's disease is caused by a genetic mutation which affects the basal ganglia, leading to motor dysfunction, cognitive decline, and also psychiatric symptoms. Parkinson's disease results from the loss of dopamine-producing neurons in the substantia nigra, causing tremors, rigidity, and bradykinesia. While both involve basal ganglia dysfunction, Huntington's is characterized by involuntary movements, while Parkinson's features resting tremors (Bloem et.al, 2022). Q 9 Current treatments for Parkinson's disease include levodopa (converted into dopamine in the brain), dopamine agonists (directly stimulating dopamine receptors), and deep brain stimulation (implanted electrodes). Levodopa provides substantial symptom relief, but long- term use can lead to motor fluctuations. Deep brain stimulation involves implanting electrodes in the sub thalamic nucleus, regulating neural activity and improving motor control. Q 10 Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disorder where the immune system attacks the protective myelin sheath of nerve fibres, leading to communication breakdown between the brain and body. This results in a range of symptoms like fatigue, vision problems, and difficulty walking (Carlson & Birkett, 2021). The severity and progression of MS can vary widely among individuals.

5 References Carlson, N. R., & Birkett, M. A. (2021). Physiology of behavior . Pearson Higher Ed. Huang, H., Zhang, T., Yang, C., & Chen, C. P. (2019). Motor learning and generalization using broad learning adaptive neural control. IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics , 67 (10), 8608-8617. Bloem, B. R., Okun, M. S., & Klein, C. (2021). Parkinson's disease. The Lancet , 397 (10291), 2284-2303.

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