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1 Exam 1. Student’s Name: Institutional Affiliation: Instructor’s Name: Course Code: Due Date: 1

2 Q 1 Monism and dualism are different terms in philosophy on the nature of consciousness and reality. Dualism states that the body and mind are two different entities with distinct properties, while monism states for the unity of body and mind as a one entity. Dualists like René Descartes, believe that the mind and body work but are fundamentally different substances. Contrary, monists, like Baruch Spinoza, argue that the body and mind are inseparable, with mental states arising from physical processes. The ability to think and control bodily movements is a perfect example of this position. Monism is supported by scientific findings that link mental experiences, such as emotions, to physiological processes in the brain ( Carlson & Carlson, 2007) . Q 2 In early Greece, prominent individuals were involved in the discussion regarding the distinction between the heart and the brain. Alcmaeon of Croton, a philosopher and physician, believed that the brain was the seat of human intelligence and the primary organ responsible for perception. Empedocles, a philosopher and poet, considered the heart as the center of emotions and cognition. The Greeks recognized the brain's importance as Aristotle acknowledged its cooling effect on the body. Hippocrates observed brain injuries leading to specific impairments. These ancient beliefs laid the foundation for future investigations into the roles of the brain and heart in cognition and emotions. Q 3 2

3 Different scholars in philosophy, physiology, and other disciplines have contributed to the modern field of behavioural neuroscience ( Coad et.al, 2019) . William James, a philosopher and psychologist, made significant contributions through theories on emotions and behaviour, providing a framework for understanding their neural basis. Santiago Ramón y Cajal, a neuroscientist, advanced our understanding of the nervous system's structure and function through his work on neuronal anatomy and the concept of the neuron doctrine. Ivan Pavlov, a physiologist, conducted pioneering research based on classical conditioning, revealing the relationship between behavioural responses and external stimuli. These interdisciplinary contributions have shaped our understanding on the neural mechanisms underlying behavior. Q 4 Reductionism and Generalization are distinct approaches used in scientific research. Generalization involves applying findings from a specific case to a wider population or phenomenon. When a study demonstrates that a particular medicine proves useful in treatment of a specific type of cancer, generalization would involve drawing the conclusion that the drug could be similarly effective for cancers of a similar nature in different patients. Reductionism, on the other hand, aims to decompose complex phenomena into simpler parts in order to explain them ( Coad et.al, 2019) . Understanding human behavior by examining individual neurons or genes and emphasizing their contributions to particular behaviors, such as learning or aggression, is an example of reductionism. Q 5 Ablation is a technique that involves removing or disabling a specific brain region to observe the effects on behaviour or function. One notable researcher who contributed to the 3

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4 development of this technique was Paul Broca, a French physician and anatomist. Broca's work in the 19th century involved studying patients with language impairments, particularly those with difficulty producing speech ( Coad et.al, 2019) . He identified a specific area in the frontal lobe, now known as Broca's area, which, when damaged, resulted in expressive aphasia. Broca's findings demonstrated the connection between specific brain regions and language function, providing crucial insights into the localization of brain functions. Q 6 Astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and microglia are the three primary subtypes of glial cells in the brain. Astrocytes support neurons structurally, control the extracellular environment, and support synaptic function. Myelin, which protects neuronal axons and quickens signal transmission, is made by oligodendrocytes. Immune cells called microglia are important for both inflammation and immune defence in the brain. While all three glial cell types support the health and function of neurons, they each have particular roles and traits. Astrocytes, for instance, control synaptic activity and recycle neurotransmitters, whereas microglia are in charge of immune protection and phagocytosis of cellular waste. Q 7 The generation of an action potential, the electrical signal that enables communication between neurons, depends on changes in ion movement. Because ions are distributed unevenly across the cell membrane in a neuron at rest, the interior of the cell is negatively charged compared to the exterior. Sodium ions rush into the cell and depolarize the membrane when an external stimulus causes ion channels to open, such as voltage-gated sodium channels. When the depolarization reaches a certain point, sodium ions enter the system quickly and in large quantities, creating an action potential. When potassium channels open, potassium ions can exit the cell and repolarize the membrane. This sequence of ion 4

5 movements generates an electrical activity traveling wave along the neuron's axon, allowing communication between neurons ( Carlson & Carlson, 2007) . Q 8 An axon's conduction velocity is significantly accelerated by myelin. Oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system (CNS) and Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) produces the fatty substance called myelin. It acts as an insulator and stops ion leakage as it forms a protective sheath around the axon ( Carlson , 2013) . In contrast to continuous propagation in the entire axon, myelin permits saltatory conduction, in which the action potential "jumps" from one node of Ranvier (unmyelinated gap) to the next. This node skipping shortens the distance that the electrical signal must travel, increasing conduction velocity. The spinal cord's myelinated axons, which speed up the transmission of sensory and motor signals, serve as an illustration. Q 9 The two types of receptors involved in neurotransmission are ionotropic and metabotropic. When a neurotransmitter is bound to ionotropic receptors, they become channels ligand-gated ion that directly regulate ion movement. They permit ions to pass through, quickly changing the neuron's electrical characteristics. An ionotropic receptor that opens its ion channel when acetylcholine binds to it is the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor. Metabotropic receptors are connected to intracellular signalling pathways by G-proteins. A neurotransmitter's binding to a metabotropic receptor sets off the chain of biochemical reactions in the neuron, producing effects that are slower to take effect and last longer. The metabotropic dopamine receptor is perfect illustration of how intracellular signalling can be used to modulate various cellular processes. Q 10 5

6 Inability of the body to effectivelybreak down acetylcholine (ACh) would cause higher concentrations of ACh in the synaptic cleft if the enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE) were disabled. Normally, AChE breaks down ACh to stop it from working and stop the postsynaptic receptors from being stimulated continuously. Without a well-functioning AChE, ACh would build up and continue to activate postsynaptic receptors, resulting in protracted effects ( Carlson, N. R., & Carlson, N. R, 2007) . AChE inhibition can lead to respiratory failure and muscle paralysis, for instance, at the neuromuscular junction. This inhibition of AChE activity, which causes excessive ACh accumulation and overstimulation of cholinergic. 6

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7 References Carlson, N. R., & Carlson, N. R. (2007). Physiology of behavior. Carlson, N. R. (2013). Physiology of behavior . Coad, J., Pedley, K., & Dunstall, M. (2019). Anatomy and physiology for midwives e-book . Elsevier Health Sciences. 7

8 8

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