03.05 The Other Senses (1)

Sensation and Perception Journal Important Information: ● The module numbers in the course do NOT align with the module numbers in the e-text. Follow the assigned reading schedule provided in the course to stay on track. ● To maintain Academic Integrity and maximize your learning, each response should be written in complete sentences and in your own words. Please do not copy and paste from the textbook or another source. ● Questions in bold are frequently tested concepts on the AP Exam. Lesson 03.01: Principles of Sensation and Perception ● Read Unit IV, Modules 16-17 in the e-text to complete this lesson. Module 16: Basic Principles of Sensation and Perception (16–1.1) Complete the chart with information about the included concepts. Concept Explanation Use Figure 16.1 from the e-text. Describe what you see. Bottom-up processing Bottom-up processing is a cognitive approach where perception begins with the analysis of individual sensory elements before forming a complete understanding A white flower that has many shadows behind it. It has cuts in the leaves and its sitting in front of a detailed hallway Top-down processing Top-down processing is a cognitive approach where pre-existing knowledge and expectations influence perception and guide the understanding of sensory information. I can see there tere are shoes and socks on and near the flower, and the flower is large compared to the hallway and the shoes. (16–2.1) Explain each of the provided concepts and give original examples.* Concept Explanation Original Example Selective attention Selective attention is the cognitive process of focusing on a specific aspect of information or stimuli while filtering out irrelevant or distracting details. Our consciousness focuses on one thing at a time Cocktail party effect The cocktail party effect is the ability to focus one's attention on a single conversation or voice in a noisy or crowded environment, even when other conversations are happening nearby. Cocktail party effect. Your ability to attend to one voice among a sea of other voices Inattentional blindness Inattentional blindness is where individuals fail to notice or see unexpected objects or events in their field of view because their attention is directed elsewhere. By showing people a one-minute video of basketball players three in black shirts and three in white shirts tossing a ball researchers told the viewers to press a key every time they saw a black shirt play pass the ball. Most viewers were so intent on their task they didnt see a woman in an umbrella cross the video Change blindness Change blindness is where people are unable to detect significant changes in a visual scene, often due to their attention being Viewers failed to notice that after a brief visual interruption a big coke bottle has disappeared and other things had changed in view. Out of

momentarily diverted or because the changes are gradual. sight out of mind. (16–3.1) Explain the process of transduction and how sensory receptors are impacted by stimuli.* Transduction is the process by which sensory receptors convert external stimuli, such as light, sound, or touch, into electrical signals that can be processed by the nervous system. These sensory receptors, specialized for different types of stimuli, undergo changes in their membrane potential or release neurotransmitters in response to the specific sensory input, allowing the brain to interpret and see the stimuli as sensory experiences. (16–4.1) Explain the ideas of absolute threshold and difference threshold.* Absolute Threshold Difference Threshold Researcher The absolute threshold is the lowest level of stimulus intensity at which a sensory receptor can detect a specific stimulus, as first investigated by early psychophysicists like Gustav Fechner. The original researcher of the difference threshold, also known as the just noticeable difference (JND), was Ernst Weber. Summary The absolute threshold is the minimum level of stimulus intensity required for a sensory receptor to detect a stimulus. The difference threshold, also known as the just noticeable difference (JND), is the smallest change in stimulus intensity that a person can detect. Related ideas explained Signal detection theory: Signal detection theory is a framework used to analyze an individual's ability to differentiate between a meaningful signal and background noise, considering factors like sensitivity and response bias. Just noticeable difference: just noticeable difference represents the smallest change in a stimulus that a person can detect, providing insights into sensory perception and discrimination thresholds. Weber’s Law: Weber's Law is a psychological principle stating that the noticeable difference between two stimuli is proportional to the magnitude of the original stimulus, rather than an absolute difference. (16–6.1) Explain sensory adaptation and how it is beneficial to our everyday functioning. Sensory adaptation is when our sensory receptors become less responsive to constant or repetitive stimuli, resulting in a reduced perception of those stimuli over time. This adaptation is beneficial in everyday functioning because it allows us to focus on new or changing information in our environment, rather than being overwhelmed by constant sensory input, improving our ability to detect novel and potentially important cues. Module 17: Influences on Perception (17–1.1) Explain what is meant by perceptual set and find an example to which you can relate. A perceptual set is a mental predisposition or expectation that influences our perception of sensory information, causing us to understand it in a particular way. For example, if someone expects to see a friend in a crowd, they may be more likely to notice people who resemble their friend, even if they're not actually present, due to their perceptual set. Take a quick break from the e-text and return to the lesson. Read through the information, watch the videos, and add any notes that you think will help your understanding in the box below.

● Rods: Rods are photoreceptor cells that primarily function in dim light conditions and are responsible for black-and-white vision, motion detection, and peripheral vision. ● Cones: Cones, function in well-lit conditions and are responsible for color vision, high-resolution visual details, and central vision, allowing us to see a wide spectrum of colors and discern fine visual information. (18–3.1) Explain the theories of color vision. Complete the chart below with information about the theories of color vision. Trichromatic Theory Opponent-process Theory Summary The trichromatic theory says that color vision is based on three types of cones in the retina, each sensitive to a specific range of wavelengths, allowing us to see a wide spectrum of colors by combining the responses of these cones. The opponent-process theory posits that color vision is the result of three opposing pairs of color receptors, where the brain perceives color by contrasting signals from these pairs, such as red-green, blue-yellow, and black-white, to create our color experiences. Related ideas explained Color blindness: Color blindness, or color vision deficiency, is a visual impairment that hinders an individual's ability to accurately see certain colors, often due to a genetic or acquired deficiency in the photoreceptor cells responsible for color vision. Afterimages: Afterimages are visual perceptions of an image that persist even after the original stimulus is removed, often appearing in complementary colors due to the fatiguing of specific photoreceptor cells in the retina. Take a quick break from the e-text and return to the lesson. Read through the information, watch the videos, and add any notes that you think will help your understanding in the box below. Additional notes from Lesson 03.02 You have completed all required reading for Lesson 03.02. Lesson 03.03: Visual Perception ● Read Unit IV, Module 19 in the e-text to complete this lesson. Module 19: Visual Organization and Interpretation (19–1.1) What does the word "Gestalt" mean?* The word "Gestalt" is a psychological principle and school of thought that emphasizes the whole or overall perception of a stimulus, as opposed to the individual parts, in order to understand how people organize and understand sensory information. Complete the organizer explaining Gestalt principles: Principle Explanation Example not found in the e-text

Figure-ground the concept of figure-ground is the organization of a visual scene into two distinct parts - the central object (the "figure") and the background (the "ground") - which helps us focus on specific objects or shapes within a larger visual context. When looking at a silhouette of a black vase on a white background, our perception can quickly shift to seeing two white faces in the black space, illustrating the figure-ground reversal. Proximity Proximity is a Gestalt psychology principle that describes how we tend to see objects or elements that are physically close to each other as being related or belonging to the same group or pattern. In a group photo, people standing close together may be perceived as a single cohesive unit, even though they are distinct individuals, due to the principle of proximity. Continuity Continuity is a Gestalt principle that says we see smooth, continuous patterns or lines, even if they are interrupted by other elements, which helps us make sense of complex visual information. When viewing a zigzagging line, our brain naturally perceives it as a smooth, continuous curve, following the principle of continuity in Gestalt psychology. Closure Closure is a Gestalt concept where we tend to mentally complete or "close" gaps in an incomplete visual pattern or figure, allowing us to see a whole and meaningful image, even when parts are missing or not fully visible Seeing a partially drawn circle with a small gap, our brain tends to fill in the missing section to see it as a complete circle, demonstrating the closure principle. (19–2.1) Summarize Gibson and Walk’s research on depth perception using the visual cliff experiment. Gibson and Walk conducted the visual cliff experiment to investigate depth perception in infants. They found that even very young infants, as early as 6 months old, showed a natural aversion to crawling over the "visual cliff," indicating that depth perception is an inherent ability and not solely learned through experience. (19–2.2) Define binocular cue. Explain convergence and retinal disparity. A binocular cue is a depth perception clue that relies on input from both eyes. Convergence is a binocular cue where the brain understands the degree to which the eyes need to turn inward to focus on an object, and retinal disparity is another binocular cue that involves the slight difference in the images each eye receives, helping the brain gauge depth and distance. (19–2.3) Using Figure 19.6, summarize each monocular cue. Cue Summary Relative height The monocular cue of relative height helps us see objects that are higher in our field of vision as more distant than those lower in the visual field. Relative size Relative size is a monocular cue that allows us to gauge the distance of objects by comparing their size to familiar objects, assuming that smaller objects are farther away. Interposition Interposition is a monocular cue that involves one object partially blocking another, allowing us to infer that the blocked object is closer. Relative motion Relative motion is a monocular cue where objects closer to us appear to move faster across our visual field than those in the distance. Linear perspective Linear perspective is a monocular cue that uses the convergence of parallel lines to create the illusion of depth, with lines appearing to meet at a vanishing point in the distance.

Additional notes from Lesson 03.03 Page 2: ● Atmospheric perspective: ● Texture gradient: ● Motion parallax: Page 3: ● How do illusions relate to top-down processing? ● Complete the graphic organizer. Illusion Explained in your own words Example Muller-Lyer illusion Moon illusion Motion illusion Ponzo illusion Ames room Impossible illusion You have completed all required reading for Lesson 03.03. Lesson 03.04: Auditory Anatomy and Perception ● Read Unit IV, Module 20 in the e-text to complete this lesson. Module 20: Hearing (20–1.1) Explain how each quality of a sound wave influences what we hear. Frequency:The frequency of a sound wave, measured in hertz (Hz), determines the pitch of the sound, with higher frequencies creating higher-pitched sounds and lower frequencies resulting in lower-pitched sounds. Amplitude:The amplitude of a sound wave, measured in decibels (dB), influences the loudness of the sound, with greater amplitudes corresponding to louder sounds and smaller amplitudes producing quieter sounds. (20–2.1) Describe the path of a sound wave through the structures of your ear. Sound waves enter the ear through the external auditory canal and strike the eardrum, causing it to vibrate. These vibrations are then transmitted through the three tiny bones of the middle ear (the ossicles), which amplify the sound and transmit it to the fluid-filled cochlea in the inner ear, where hair cells detect the vibrations and convert them into electrical signals that travel through the auditory nerve to the brain for processing as sound. (20–2.2) Describe the different types of hearing loss. Type of Hearing Loss Causes Solution Sensorineural Sensorineural hearing loss is typically caused by damage to the hair cells or the auditory nerve in the inner ear, often due to aging, exposure to loud noises, or certain medical conditions. Treatment for sensorineural hearing loss often involves hearing aids to amplify sound, cochlear implants for more severe cases, and managing underlying medical conditions or avoiding further exposure to damaging sounds. Conduction Conduction hearing loss results from problems in the outer or middle ear, such as earwax blockages, ear infections, or damage to the eardrum Conduction hearing loss can often be resolved with medical interventions, such as removing earwax blockages, treating ear infections, repairing

or the ossicles (tiny bones) that transmit sound vibrations. damaged eardrums, or surgically addressing issues with the ossicles, but hearing aids may also be considered in some cases. (20–3.1) Summarize the different theories for pitch.* Place Theory:* - the perception of pitch is determined by the specific location along the cochlea where hair cells are most active in response to different frequencies, with high-pitched sounds activating cells in one area and low-pitched sounds activating cells in another area. Frequency Theory:*- the perception of pitch is determined by the rate of neural impulses that match the frequency of a sound, with higher-pitched sounds corresponding to higher firing rates of auditory nerve fibers. Volley Theory:* - for moderate to high-pitched sounds, groups of auditory nerve fibers fire in a coordinated, alternating manner, creating a combined volley of impulses that collectively represent the pitch of the sound. Take a quick break from the e-text and return to the lesson. Read through the information, watch the videos, and add any notes that you think will help your understanding in the box below. Additional notes from Lesson 03.04 You have completed all required reading for Lesson 03.04. Lesson 03.05: The Other Senses ● Read Unit IV, Module 21 in the e-text to complete this lesson. Module 21: The Other Senses (21–1.1) What four sensations does our skin detect? Our skin detects four primary sensations: pressure, temperature, pain, and touch. (21–2.1) Explain the biopsychosocial influences of pain. The experience of pain is influenced by a combination of biological factors, psychological factors (such as mood and expectations), and social factors (including cultural norms and social support), collectively known as the biopsychosocial model, which recognizes the multidimensional nature of pain perception and management. Biological Psychological Social-Cultural Biological factors in the biopsychosocial model of pain include the individual's genetics, nerve pathways, and the presence of injuries or diseases that affect pain perception. Psychological factors encompass the emotional and cognitive aspects of pain, including how an individual's mood, thoughts, and expectations can influence the perception and experience of pain. Social-Cultural factors involve the impact of cultural norms, social support, and societal expectations on how pain is expressed, experienced, and managed within different cultural and social contexts.