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Lesson 4: Enlightenment to Modernity Key Terms Indulgences:  Refers to the lessening of a punishment for a sin committed. In medieval times, Christians contributed money to the Church to lessen their penance for sins committed. In Luther’s time, Pope Leo X granted indulgences for those who donated money to reconstruct St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome. Reformation:  The 16th century movement for reform of the doctrines and practices of the Roman Catholic Church which ended in the establishment of Protestant Churches. Ethical Absolutes:  An absolute value or good is one that maintains its validity under any and every circumstance.  Three arguments against: 1. There is no objectivity or universality to moral judgements, nor any unified human nature. 2. Rules are relative to a geographical time and place. 3. The problems of legalism and moralism. Norms:  Guides to being and doing, particularly guides to types of action that are right or wrong, obligatory or permitted.  The language of norms is general and encompasses such other language as ideals, laws, standards, principles and rules.  What is the strength or weight of a norm? o Absolute: it cannot be overridden under any circumstances, and it has priority over all other rules with which it might come into conflict. o Prima facie: there is always a strong moral reason for acting in accord with this rule, but this reason may not always be decisive. Even though the rule is always morally relevant, it may sometimes yield to stronger rules. o Relative: a mere maxim or rule of thumb that illuminates but does not prescribe what ought to be done. Enlightenment Learning Objective (1) The Enlightenment period and the challenges it presents.  The Enlightenment refers to a period of European thought from approximately 1650 to 1800 c.e. It was a time when experience and reason were emphasized and there was a mistrust of religion and traditional authority. There was an optimism that with education human beings, through their effort would progress indefinitely.  An example of optimism is found in English statesman and philosopher of science, Francis Bacon’s book New Organon (published in 1620) where Bacon posits that enlightenment and a better world are within the power of human beings.  Much of what we value today stems from the Enlightenment period, for example, the emphasis on human rights and progress (creating a better world).

Some Key Events & Movements Precipitated by the Enlightenment 1. Overview  The Enlightenment was a time of advancement at many different levels allowing for a broadening of horizons causing significant changes in the way people thought. Because it was a period of worldwide exploration and discovery, there was a deeper awareness that human beings are situated in history and in culture. There was more awareness of other cultures and of other ways of thinking about reality. 2. Industrial Revolution  The Industrial Revolution began, energized by hydraulic and steam power. Peasants were driven from the land to live in industrial towns and cities seeking employment in the new factories. 3. American Revolution  The American Revolution where the thirteen colonies of the “new world” gained independence from Britain and with this the promotion of democracy and the social contract. 4. French Revolution  The French Revolution, which uprooted absolute monarchy and the feudal system, shook France and Europe to its foundations. There was an emphasis on popular (of the people) sovereignty and the inalienable rights of all, not just the elite. 5. Modern Science  Modern science, essentially a product of the Enlightenment, made major strides during the 1st and 19th centuries. Perhaps even more important were the changes wrought by scientific method in the way people looked at their world. Systematic empirical research required radical reexamination of human nature, factual history, and the materials and traditions upon which theology and Christian ethics were based. 6. The new era  The new era, optimistically referred to as the Enlightenment, offered further challenges to the intellectual and spiritual dominance of Christian theology while also influencing the direction of Christian ethics. Quotes from key thinkers who influenced the Enlightenment period 1. Rene Descartes (1596-1650): “Cogito Ergo Sum” I think therefore I am. 2. Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679): We agree to be ruled over in return for protection against each other. 3. David Hume (1711-1776): He is happy whom circumstances suit his temper; but he is more excellent who suits his temper to any. 4. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804): All human knowledge starts with experience, but knowledge of the world also depends upon the nature. 5. John Locke (1632-1704): The end of law is not to abolish or restrain, but to preserve and enlarge freedom. For in all the states of created beings capable of law, where there is now law, there is no freedom.

 “If every world-view, every philosophical system, every moral code is the product of a particular age with its particular advantages and problems and can make no claim to universal validity, then are we not reduced to organizing our individual lives and our societies on the basis of personal preference, advantage, or groundless tradition?” The Challenge of Historicism The enormous challenge of historicism to Christianity, both the Protestant and Roman Catholic churches, was even greater than the upheaval caused by the aftermath of the Reformation.  Why? Because historicism shook the churches to their very foundation. Traditional perspectives on the human person’s status and place in nature were being challenged. Some examples:  When Copernicus established that the earth was not the centre of the universe, the status of the earth and human beings diminished somewhat.  Similarly, Darwin’s theory that humans developed in an unbroken line from the other animal species seemed to dethrone humans as the pinnacle of God’s creation. Reaction to Modernity Learning Objective (2) The reaction of both the Roman Catholic Church and the Protestant Church to the Enlightenment and modernity. Roman Catholicism In the face of so much criticism of and challenge to the validity of its teachings the Roman Catholic Church fell back on and promoted certitudes of faith. Rather than exploring the truth- value of Enlightenment criticism of its traditional views of human living and moral behaviour, the Church dug its heels in, so to speak, and retired into a dogmatic corner. In other words, it emphasized belief in traditional dogma and doctrine and the teachings of the hierarchy of the Church (the Pope, Cardinals, Bishops, and Priests). The Threat of Historicism:  Faced with the threat of historicism, the Catholic Church more strongly adhered to an objective natural order, an order that was unchanging and permanent. It was an order that could be discerned through reason and established laws that demanded conformity. So, we see the Catholic Church embrace a more legalistic and rigid model of ethics. It emphasized the certitude of its moral teachings. Promoting Sin vs Promoting Good  Ethics and morality was seen in terms of limits rather than what promotes human flourishing. In other words, for the Catholic Church, ethics and morality had to do with preventing sin rather than promoting good. Protestantism Many forms of Protestantism emerged after Luther and Calvin. There was a mixture of responses to the challenges of the Enlightenment. For example, there was an emphasis on the individual and his or her relation to God. This manifested in a focus on an inner spiritual life, which was a form of Pietism. There was also an emphasis on intellectual assent to correct doctrine, a kind of

Protestant orthodoxy, which was a departure from the Reformation emphasis on faith in the gospel alone. Demands of “this world” and the demands of God:  Tension existed between the demands of “this world” and the demands of God and God’s kingdom. In some Protestant movements, these worlds came to be expressed in a strong work ethic and a strong inner spiritual life.  This tension is reminiscent of Martin Luther’s two kingdoms: “God has ordained two governments: the spiritual, by which the Holy Spirit produces Christians and righteous people under Christ; and the temporal, which restrains the un-Christian and wicked so that … they are obliged to keep still and to maintain an outward peace.” Catholic Concerns Learning Objective (3) Issues and concerns of modern Roman Catholic ethics. In the period of the late 19th and early 20th century, a fundamentally important debate emerges around questions concerning the nature of moral responsibility. The debate had to do with the tension between freedom and responsibility and between freedom and authority. As we will see, these questions are played out in the many reforms that happened in Roman Catholic moral theology in the 20th century. There is a revamping of natural law → a profound shift in the Roman Catholic tradition away from a legalistic form of ethics (which tried to control human behaviour) towards more openness to the human person’s capacity to think through and discern good and evil. Reworking Natural Law One important reform had to do with a reworking of natural law. There was a shift toward an emphasis on God giving human beings the capacity to discover the “good”. This revamping of natural law stressed an intrinsic, intellectualistic, and realistic understanding of natural law as the basis for moral theology as distinguished from the extrinsic, voluntaristic, and nominalistic approach of the manuals. As we saw earlier, the manuals stressed obedience rather than reasoning. The renewal insisted that the good is the primary ethical category. It held that something is commanded because it is good and the good can be discerned. It emphasized the centrality of the virtues and rejected the legal model of the manuals. More about Moral Manuals.  The manuals of moral theology were textbooks with the primary purpose of preparing priests for the role of confessors in the sacrament of penance. Their orientation was pragmatic and casuistic with the ultimate goal of determining what was sinful and what was the gravity of the sin.  “The moral theology of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries…manifested not merely a process of developing theological specialization but a bifurcation in the inherent relationship of the moral and spiritual dimensions of Christian living. Catholic moral theology, under the influence of the philosophy of nominalism, gradually became focused on acts, rules, and casuistry, losing the broader Thomistic emphasis on virtues in the context of a striving to attain the ultimate end. Discussion of virtue was reduced almost to providing an organizing structure for discussing the sinful acts that ‘opposed’ particular

Aftermath of the Second Vatican Council Major developments in Catholic Moral Theology Introduction  In the aftermath of the Second Vatican Council we see major developments occurred in the following areas: 1. The role of scripture in moral knowledge 2. Moral theology’s relationship to all theology 3. Moral theology’s philosophical underpinnings 4. Moral theology as life centred 5. Dialogue is sought with other religions 6. Changes in the approach to social and political ethics 1. The Role of Scripture in Moral Knowledge  Catholic exegetes employ a critical method in understanding the scriptures. For example, the method known as “historical critical method” seeks to establish the origins of the text in order to understand “the world behind the text”. There is an emphasis on general themes in scripture (for example, disposition of the person and important values in social life) and less on particular questions. Scripture cannot be used as “proof text” for specific moral conclusions. (Proof texting is the practice of using a passage from the Bible to establish a theological position or a moral teaching without considering the context of the passage.) 2. Moral Theology’s Relationship to all Theology  This means it is more integrated with other aspects of theology. There was recognition that both faith and scripture had to be related to the everyday world. Moral theology recognizes the importance of Christology, particularly a Christology “from below” that emphasizes the importance of Jesus and his life. Political and liberation theologies draw from this. 3. Moral Theology’s Philosophical Underpinnings  There are three significant shifts here: 1. More attention was given to historical situatedness emphasizing the particular, the individual, and change. 2. Shifting the focus to the person and the subject rather than on nature and the object (a personalist perspective). So, attention to the person as the starting point of theory rather than a theory being applied to a person. 3. A shift from “physicalism”, identifying the human moral act with the physical structure of the act, to looking at the whole context of the action. 4. Moral Theology as Life Centred  It is not focused so much on what is wrong, but on promoting virtue and human flourishing. Conversion (a change of heart) is stressed as the fundamental response of the Christian to the call of God. Sin is seen not so much as an act but more as a choice to move away from union with God. The human person is both agent and subject. There is an emphasis on individual conscience and on moral development throughout life. However, there is also recognition of the communal and social dimensions of human existence, that is, our acts affect others. 5. Dialogue is Sought with Other Religions

 We see an emphasis on dialogue exhibited at the Council and in the Council documents. This dialogue is sought with other religions, with contemporary philosophies, with the sciences and with all persons of good will. 6. Changes in the Approach to Social and Political Ethics  We see significant changes in the approach to social and political ethics (for example, acceptance of religious liberty, the emergence of liberation and political theologies) but less changes in issues related to personal, sexual, and medical morality. Disputes in Catholic Moral Theology Three Significant Disputes in Contemporary Catholic Moral Theology. 1. Is there a unique Christian morality? 1. Some believe Christian morality offers nothing unique that does not already exist in morality in general. 1. Others argue that faith, grace, and belief in Jesus Christ should have unique effect on Christians and how they act. 2. Are there universal moral norms? 1. Are certain acts intrinsically evil independent of intention, circumstance, or consequence? Or b. Can certain acts be justified for proportionate reason? 3. Is dissent from official Church teaching allowed? 1. Some argue that dissent is possible because some moral questions are not central to faith and disagreement does not implicate one’s faith. In addition, human beings are limited in understanding and so we can never achieve certitude that excludes the possibility of error. 1. Others stress that the Holy Spirit is present in the official teachers of the Church. Ethical Absolutes & Relativism in Ethics Ethical Absolutes  An absolute value or good is one that maintains its validity under any and every circumstance. There are three arguments against the possibility of ethical absolutes: 1. There is no objectivity or universality to moral judgments nor any unified human nature. 2. Rules are relative to a geographical time and place. 3. Ethical absolutes lead to the problem of legalism and moralism, which does not promote human good. Relativism in Ethics  What is right or wrong, good or bad, for a person varies in relation to the cultural group to which he or she belongs. There is no standard or objective morality applicable to all human beings. What actually is right differs in different contexts. Protestant Concerns Learning Objective (4) Issues and concerns of modern protestant ethics.

 Bruner was the first Protestant theologian to create a systematic articulation of ethics.  He promotes a theology of encounter, a personal experience of encounter with God and with others. Ethics emerges from that encounter and not from law which, for Brunner, is secondary.  Brunner emphasized a divine command ethic which eschews laws and principles. [Divine Command Ethics: One way to understand divine command ethics is to compare the following: Is an act right because God wanted (or commanded) it, or did God want (or command) this act because it is right? For divine command ethics, an act is right because God’s commanded it.] 4. Dietrich Bonhoeffer (1906-1945): German Lutheran pastor and theologian  For Bonhoeffer, God’s command is rooted in a person's relationship with God. God’s command is free of prior rational and legal necessity.  Bonhoeffer advocated Christian responsibility. The centre of ethics, for Bonhoeffer, is responsible action in face of evil. Evil is concrete and must be fought through concrete action.  Bonhoeffer was a founding member of the “Confessing Church'' and he joined the resistance against Hitler. He was part of a plot to kill Hitler. He was arrested and executed by the Nazis in 1945. 5. Reinhold Niebuhr (1892-1971): American theologian  Niebuhr’s concrete experience of working as a pastor in the midst of the terrible conditions of industrial America robbed him of hope in human solutions. He did not have hope in humanity’s capability to bring about social change.  Niebuhr shared the impulse of the social gospel but challenged its liberal version marked by the belief in God’s immanence and in human achievement of the social gospel.  He revolted against theological liberalism in America. For Niebuhr, the human situation is one that is dominated by sinfulness.  Niebuhr had no hope for reordering society through political and social persuasion. Situation & Communitarian Ethics Important Methods in Contemporary Protestant Ethics 1. Introduction  The two important methods in contemporary ethics that had their foundation in Protestant thinkers: o Situation ethics o Communitarian ethics 2. What are Situation Ethics?  The central thesis in situation ethics is the inadequacy of universal norms of conduct, even the Ten Commandments, to determine absolutely what I ought to do here and now in these concrete circumstances. For situation ethics, every decision is unique, for it must be made by the individual conscience in a concrete situation that is unique and therefore falls outside the compass of abstract universals. Abstract universals may have their use as general directives, but they

have no absolute validity. So, situation ethics stresses the uniqueness of the situation in which a moral decision is made and diminishes the role of general principles. For example, stealing, under certain circumstances (extreme need) may be morally justified. One important criticism of situation ethics is that, pushed to its extreme, it would result in a fragmentation of the moral life into isolated segments, and a dissociation of individual choice from community bonds.  A key issue here is the validity or weight of norms . 3. Situation Ethics: What are Norms  Norms are guides to being and doing, particularly guides to types of actions that are right or wrong, obligatory or permitted. The language of norms is general and encompasses such other languages as ideals, laws, standards, principles, and rules.  What is the strength or weight of a norm? o Absolute Norm: cannot be overridden under any circumstances and it has priority over all other rules with which it might come into conflict. o Prima facie Norm: there is always a strong moral reason for acting in accord with that rule, but this reason may not always be decisive. Even though the rule is always morally relevant, it may sometimes yield to stronger rules. o Relative Norm: a mere maxim or rule of thumb that illuminates but does not prescribe what ought to be done. 4. What are Communitarian Ethics?  The focus in communitarian ethics is on communal responsibility. Ethics is grounded in communal values. So communitarian ethics is interested in the values that are realized in engaging in shared practices. The shared practice produces internal goods. So, communitarian ethics emphasizes the influence of society on individuals. Values are rooted in a common history and tradition.  A key issue here is value and value judgments . 5. Communitarian Ethics: What are Value and Value Judgments?  What exactly is a value? How do we make judgments about it? o Subjectivist position:  Value is constituted by the feelings aroused in the person.  Value does not reside in the object but depends instead on the subjective response. o There are two criticisms of this position: 1. The value does not come into existence when we attend to it. 2. Sometimes what attracts human interest turns out to be bad.  Objectivist position: o Value denotes characteristics of objects and belongs to the objects themselves. They are discovered by the mind sensitive to their existence.  Judgement of value: embraces not only the basic assertion of values or goods as values, but also the application of the standards implied to individual situations, actions, and objects.