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Lesson 2: the first 400 years Faith versus reason The relation between faith and reason shaped the history of the Christian tradition’s reflection on moral life.  What is faith? Belief, trust, confidence. o There are 3 dentitions according to the Oxford English Dictionary First definition A. Confidence, reliance, trust (in the ability, goodness, etc., of a person; in the efficacy or worth of a thing; or in the truth of a statement or doctrine). B. Belief proceeding from reliance on testimony or authority. Second definition A. Phrases. to give faith : to yield belief to. to pin one's faith to or upon; to believe implicitly. Third definition ***Theol. in various specific applications. A. Belief in the truths of religion; belief in the authenticity of divine revelation (whether viewed as contained in Holy Scripture or in the teaching of the Church), and acceptance of the revealed doctrines. B. That kind of faith (distinctively called saving faith or justifying faith) which, in the teaching of the New Testament, justifies a sinner in the sight of God. Theologians variously define this, but there is general agreement in regarding it as a conviction practically operative on the character and will, and thus opposed to the mere intellectual assent to religious truth. C. The spiritual apprehension of divine truths, or of realities beyond the reach of sensible experience or logical proof.  What is Christian faith? According to the Christian bible, the New Testament was written in Greek and the Greek noun “pistis” os translated “faith” in many translations of the bible. In the New Testament, the word “faith” meant, “to trust someone”, it is a word that connotes relationship, one’s relationship to God. - Faith is to trust in God. - Faith in the New Testament did not mean “firm belief in that for which there is no proof”.  What is reason? o There are 2 definitions of reason: A. The intellectual power, the capacity for rational thought, and related senses. The power of the mind to think and form valid judgements by a process of logic; the mental faculty which is used in adapting thought or action to some end; the guiding principle of the mind in the process of thinking. (We use the expression: " the age of reason " to refer to the age at which a child is held capable of discerning right from wrong.)

B. A cause, ground, or motive. A fact or circumstance forming, or alleged as forming, a motive sufficient to lead a person to adopt or reject some course of action or belief.  What is Christian reason? o One way to understand the issue of Christian reason is to look at three passages from Paul’s letters.  Romans 2:14-15 (RSV)  For when Gentiles, who do not have the law, by nature do what the law requires, they are a law to themselves, even though they do not have the law. They show that the work of the law is written on their hearts... 1 Corinthians 2:14 (RSV) The natural person does not accept the things of the Spirit of God, for they are folly to him, and he is not able to understand them because they are spiritually discerned. Ephesians 2:8 (RSV) For by grace, you have been saved through faith. And this is not your own doing; it is the gift of God...  Faith in God versus human reason. o As Paul was saying on the previous slide - On the one hand people (the Gentiles) are able to discern right from wrong, the law is "written in their hearts" even though they do not know Christ or God. So, there is a sense here that one's own efforts will lead one to discern what is right and then one will do it. On the other hand, Paul says that a person can only be saved through faith; nothing a person does can save him or her.  God Human faith reason (revelation) (good works) grace law Christian influences *** The earliest Christian writers depended heavily upon Hebrew scriptures. These scriptures are the sacred texts of the Jewish religion. Many Christian denominations refer to these sacred texts as the “Old Testament”. Hebrew scriptures are used by both contemporary Judaism and Christianity, but these texts are interpreted in different ways. Early Christian writers were also influenced by ancient philosophical traditions. We will consider four important Greek philosophical sources. Plato, Aristotle, Zeno and Epicurus on the following slide.  Greek philosophical influences A. Plato a. Platonism: The Greek philosophy of Plato and his followers taught the following: i. Truth is universal and eternal. Two opinions in Paul’s letters. - Sense where their own efforts will lead them to know what is right and what they should do. - A person can only be saved through faith, nothing they do can save them.

ii. The world of things is fleeting and corruptible—an imperfect imitation of pure ideas. iii. Confidence in the capacity of the human mind to discover truth through reason. iv. Moral life is patterning one’s behaviour in accordance wth universal ideas. B. Aristotle a. Parted ways from his mentor Plato. b. Believed that form over matter equalled life, and, that form was superior to matter. c. Aristotle disagreed and asserted that form (soul) and matter were one substance. d. Plato is considered a dualist, whereas Aristotle a realist. ***aristotle was Plato’s pupil. - Reversal of Plato—ideas are a reflection of things. - For Aristotle, the good consists in the realization of the end's potential in one’s nature. C. Zeno a. Zion of citium founded the school of stoicism where he taught. b. His philosophy valued peace of mind which he believed was a result of living reasonably, virtuously and in harmony with nature. ***stoicism—a Greek philosophy founded by Zeno. - God is rational - Humans reflect this same rationality - To be true to one’s humanity is to centre oneself on reason. D. Epicurus a. Was influenced by Democritus his predecessor who was a materialist and who is regarded as the first to identify the atom as the building blocks of materiality. b. He lived by a form of controlled hedonism (pleasure is the greatest good) ***epicureanism—a Greek philosophy founded by Epicurus. - Life has no enduring meaning. - Therefore, must maximize pleasure and minimize pain. - Avoided social relationships and political responsibility. New Testament ethics The last of the New Testament writings are dated from early in the 2nd century and it is from these writings that we see diversity rather than unity in the scriptures. The Bible does not have a single ethical perspective, but instead has a variety of ethical perspectives. Biblical morality is very much of a contextual character rather than stating universal . However, there were certain distinctive features about the approach of the people of the Bible to morality: i. The Bible regards people's behaviour as the direct and immediate response to God's revealed will. ii. In the New Testament, God is revealed through Christ. When proposing a way of life that is Christian, the New Testament writers constantly draw attention to the pattern of Jesus' earthly life as well as to the demands the resurrected Christ makes on those who believe in him.

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iii. Christ formed a new covenant that built on the old covenant, so there is a basic unity between the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament, at the same time there is a shift away from following the "letter of the law" to following the "spirit" of the law.  Central theme of Jesus’ The central theme of Jesus' (New Testament) message is "the kingdom of God is at hand." (Mark 1:14) Jesus' proclamation of the kingdom of God is central. The "kingdom" is present in and with his own person. The phrase 'the kingdom of God' does not refer to territory or to a state of "kingship". Rather, it refers to a person's acceptance of the God who graciously approached and to that person's consequent adherence to a certain way of life. Jesus demonstrated what this acceptance meant and what this way of life was. This was the central point of his mission as he understood it. His teaching on morality, with regard to both content and motivation, was based on it. The main concern of Jesus was to live out God's kingdom and its demands. Jesus' life was a pattern of behaviour in accord with the nature of the kingdom. It was a pattern others could follow. There is no fully worked out moral system in the New Testament. For Jesus, perfection meant acceptance of the kingdom and its demands. It means "repentance" and obedience to the divine will (discipleship).  Characteristics of New Testament ethics Jesus rejected the formal authority of the Scriptures as absolutely binding. He did not hesitate to interpret the Scriptures for his contemporaries not as a scribe who spells out their every implication, but as one who can oppose one passage to another and show how they correspond with God's kingdom in the present. Jesus condemns ritual law. For Jesus, it is the human heart that is important, as the prophets had previously insisted, and ritual prescriptions cannot determine a person's total acceptance or rejection of God. (Mark 7). Jesus' basic request is 'follow me', that is, imitate the selfless pattern of his life. He emphasized this rather than spelling out a detailed moral code. So we see in John - Jesus' moral teaching is chiefly seen in his command to love. It is spelled out mainly in the concrete acts of forgiveness, practical caring and unlimited self-sacrifice. Rather than laws and commands, Jesus uses parables or stories to teach ethical behaviour. The characteristics of New Testament ethics are: The two great commandments in the New Testament are:  Priority of love over other virtues.  Morality is not prescribed in a rigid manner.  love of God.  love of neighbour.  Contextual ethics

A. Faced moral problems.  The early Christian communities never considered that they had received a complete code of morality to deal with every situation.  The community of faith must discover what its moral response should be in the face of specific moral problems. B. Interpreted, adapted, and applied Jesus' sayings.  Jesus’ sayings could be interpreted, adapted and applied to new situations.  Jesus did not discuss every situation or deal with every problem explicitly, but the tradition of his words can be approached in a living and vital way, precisely because of his promise to be present with his disciples “until the end of age”. C. Showed cultural diversity among believers.  There was significant cultural diversity among the early church believers.  There are many examples of creative liberty and fidelity in the apostolic church.  Ex: in acts 10: 11-18, peter did not impose circumcision and other Jewish customs on the house of the gentile Roman officer, Cornelius. D. We’re effected by Paul’s teachings.  Paul, in particular, exhibited tremendous creative liberty which allowed him to have a huge impact in most of the places he visited in his travels.  Paul’s teachings were always contextual.  Ex: Paul’s first letter to the Corinthian— “woman should remain silent in the churches. They are not allowed to speak, but must be in submission, as the law says. If they want to inquire about something, they should ask their husband at home; for it is disgraceful for a woman to speak in the church”.  Yet, on the other hand, Paul writes to the galatians: “there is neither Jew not gentile, neither slave nor free, not is there male and female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus”. E. Struggle with social questions.  In the first centuries, early Christian thinkers struggled with momentous social questions.  The attitude to be taken toward the material world itself.  The attitude to be taken toward political power.  In the second century, there was a shift to the development of deeper intellectual presentations of the faith. Christian concerns The implications of the Gospel proclamation on the behaviour of the early Christians continued to be an important concern as the first Christian disciples exited the scene and second and third generation Christians wrestled with what being a Christian meant in terms of moral living. Again, this ethical concern did not result in any comprehensive moral systems, let alone any single, universally accepted system. Rather, the writing of the period was characterized by a desire to respond to the concrete needs of the community in a way that is still authentic to the core of the Christian faith. This dialectic of faith (in the teachings of Christ) and experience (the concrete situation at that moment) was differently handled by various early Christian theologians. We will look at five of these key figures who spanned the 2nd to the 5th century c.e.

 Key figure: saint Justin Saint Justin—one of the early Christian “apologists”. - First who tried to reconcile Christian with non-Christian culture. - Attempted a synthesis, a constructive encounter with the prevailing philosophy of platonism. - In dialogue with Pagan philosophy and Jewish culture. - Presents Christ to Jews and gentiles as logos Kay nomos (the word and the law). With Justin we have the beginning of the synthesis of Christianity with platonism, so it is important that we understand something about Plato and his teacher Socrates and their understanding of the moral life. 1. Socrates equated virtue with knowledge.  For him, the ultimate evil is the unexamined life. He tried to bring people to recognize their own ignorance. He continually questioned his fellow athenians on the meaning and necessity of virtuous and reflective living. Socrates’ pedagogy was not to hand down doctrines but to lead his students to see for themselves, to get the insight themselves. 2. Plato privileged the soul over the body.  He believed the soul to be separate and superior to the body. Human beings are attracted to the good through desire (Eros). No one desires evil, humans are merely misled. Doing the good follow naturally and logically from knowing the good. Plato’s view of the soul: - Plato saw the soul as divided into three parts: desire (appetites) spirit and reason. For Plato, the state exists to guarantee the good life for its citizens and should thus be ruled by those with a developed capacity for approaching the essence of good life. When Platonism was combined with Christianity, several themes often but not always emerged: - Denial of a sharp dichotomy between reason and revelation - Emphasis on the incarnation rather than on the atonement

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- …  Key figure: clement of Alexandria Clement of Alexandria (Greek Theologian) (c.150-c.211) in creative dialogue with the prevailing thought patterns of his culture. The central theme in Clement's teachings is the true knowledge of Jesus Christ. He gives place to the primacy of love against stoic self- sufficiency. A key theme in his teachings was that the human person is created in the image and likeness of God. Therefore, the moral life is responding to this vocation. Clement had an optimistic vision of life; he saw the world as good. He wanted to integrate the Gospel with insights from the pagan world. Clement argued against Gnosticism and Manichaeism. Gnosticism: a doctrine of various sects combining Christian and pagan elements, that came into prominence around the 2nd century. Central importance attached to 'gnosis', revealed but secret knowledge of God and of his nature, enabling those who possess it to achieve salvation. Manichaeism: a type of Gnosticism Associates the material world with evil, but in some men, there is a spiritual element that through knowledge and associated ritual may be rescued from it and attain a higher spiritual state. Believes that Christ was never truly embodied and so he did not die.  Key figure: Origen Origen was a student of Clement's who saw Christ as the centre of history. He was also against Gnosticism - strongly defending freedom of the will. Origen was more negative having a pessimistic view of human life. He was much more inclined to dichotomize the life of Christian faith and the life of the world. Unique Among Platonists  Origen lived through a turbulent period of the Christian Church, when persecution was widespread and little or no doctrinal consensus existed among the various regional churches. In this environment, Gnosticism flourished, and Origen was the first truly philosophical thinker to turn his hand not only to a refutation of Gnosticism, but to offer an alternative Christian system that was more rigorous and philosophically respectable than the mythological speculations of the various Gnostic sects.  He is unique among Platonists of his era for introducing history into his cosmological and metaphysical speculations, and his insistence on the absolute freedom of each and every person, thereby denying the fatalism that so often found its way into the more esoteric teachings of the various philosophical and mystery schools of his day. Primary consideration was given at this time to divine laws or to what were regarded as the eternal laws of the universe, over which man had no control. But subordinate to these divine and eternal laws was the law of nature.  That the theory of natural law was given an important place in early Christian thought may be gathered from the writings of Origen, St. Ambrose, and St. Jerome. Referring to a passage of St. Paul (Rom. ii, 12-14) they spoke of natural law as equivalent to the law of God and as universal in contrast with the written laws made by human beings.  Struggling with social and political questions 1. Duties of the believer

i. It was Ambrose, Roman, bishop of Milan who addressed himself to the myriad “duties” of the believer. ii. Ambrose sought to articulate these moral responsibilities in a concrete way that presaged the works of casuistry that would flourish 1300 years later. His preaching had a strong impact on Augustine of hippo, whom Ambrose baptized and brought into the church. 2. Love God and neighbour i. While early Christians were not the only people in the ancient world to advocate highly disciplined moral living, they are noteworthy in grounding personal morality in a love ethic. Their writings frequently alluded to the two commandments—love god and neighbour. ii. Christians are admonished by their moral teachers to live lives of sexual self- discipline (if not total abstinence), to care for widows and orphans and other vulnerable people, and repay evil with good. 3. Views of the material and political worlds i. Christian’s struggled with momentous social questions concerning the attitude to be taken toward the material world itself. Such as Gnosticism—Christ had nothing to do with the creation of the material world. ii. Another issue was the attitude to be taken toward political power. Christians of the first two centuries seem to have renounced the use of coercive force, even in self-Defense yet gave substantial support to the state in its exercise of power. 4. Ethics gaining expression i. Shift of emphasis occurred in 2 nd century with the development of deeper intellectual presentations of the faith. The 1 st and the early 2 nd century writings are based on authoritative revelation and less upon a process of reasoning. ii. Ethics gained highly sophisticated expression, fully availing itself of the highest philosophical traditions and methods in the ancient world with the emergence of great thinkers like clement, origin, tertullian, Ambrose, and Augustine. The greatest of these thinkings was Augustine of Hippo, whose work drew the best of earlier Christian thought into focus while laying the foundations for a millennium of subsequent writing on moral questions.  Key figure: Augustine of hippo 1. The moral theologian a. He was Ambrose’s discipline and is, to some, considered to be the greatest moral theologian of all time. i. Most creative and imaginative thinker of Christian antiquity ii. Never attempted to develop a coherent and inclusive system of moral theory. iii. Confessions— his personal theological vision. iv. City of god—his understanding of the world. 2. The perennial issues of ethics a. He addressed himself to the perennial underlying issues of ethics with the relationship of i. Faith and works ii. Grace and freedom iii. Sin and virtue 3. Key teaching

a. He focused on the centrality of love in the Christian life and utilized a psychological, introspective and inductive approach to the development of ethical insight.  Key figure: Pelagius A 5th century British monk, Pelagius, identified a tension within the traditional Christian conviction of grace. It implies that humans cannot save themselves. Therefore, how can God hold us responsible for our failings? The Pelagian Controversy Pelagius argues:  We must be able to keep God's law without God's help.  Denied the doctrine of original sin.  Attributed to human beings the ability by themselves to choose the good and so to effect their own salvation. In refuting Pelagius, Augustine emphasized:  The universality of human sinfulness as a way of explaining the absolute necessity of God's loving benefits.  He used Paul's metaphor in Romans 5 - humanity had fallen in Adam and Eve's sin from the state God had planned.  So, Augustine stressed without Christ we can do nothing. Pelagius was declared a heretic by the Council of Carthage. While Augustine's writings influenced Church teachings on ethics for the next 1000 years. Ethical tensions  Identifying tensions faced by early Christians.  discussed in the video on the previous slide several tensions exist: a between materialism and the life The tension is between valuing this material world, our life on earth and all it means to us versus the life of the Spirit, which points us to something more than this world. So, Jesus says to the rich young man: “If you want to

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of the Spirit be perfect, go, sell your possessions and give to the poor, and you will have treasure in heaven. Then come, follow me.” (Matthew 19:21) b between universalism and group identity Here the tension is between belonging to a group (the Christians) and being outside the group. One of the questions the early Christians asked themselves had to do with their relationship with those who believed in Christ and those who did not. Has Christ come to save all human beings or only a few select ones? c between grace and law Grace is a theological concept. It refers to God’s relation to human being. It is a relation that is utterly gratuitous and does not depend on any effort of the human person to warrant God’s love. So, God’s love is generous, free, totally unexpected and undeserved. The law refers to God’s law, for example, the Ten Commandments but it also refers to the laws of human beings, for example, what our law (in Canada or in the country in which we live) tells us about what we can and cannot do. The early Christians debated about their responsibility to the law. Some felt they were no longer obliged to follow the law because they had been saved through Christ. Christ freed them from the law. Others argued that just as Christ followed the law when he lived on earth, so Christians should follow the law. d between revelation and reason Revelation is knowledge given to persons of faith. It is a knowledge that is gained through an experience of God’s self-revelation to the world. It is a knowledge that is initiated from God. It comes from God and human beings receive this knowledge but do not initiate it. Reason is the capacity to understand (or gain knowledge) through reflection on one’s experience. It is a knowledge that one comes to through one’s own effort, by reflecting on one’s experiencing and judging the correctness of one’s  The biblical legacy of Christian ethics All four tensions bring us back to our opening discussion about faith and reason for each one shares the underlying question Christians ask about their role in living a good life. As J. Philip Wogaman suggests in his book, Christian Ethics: A Historical Introduction: "The biblical legacy, taken as a whole, would seem to suggest that serious thought about ethics must employ both revelation and reason, although the meaning of revelation, the nature of reason, and the proper way to employ the two together have been elaborated in very different ways through Christian history." [Christian Ethics: A Historical Introduction, Louisville, second edition. Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press, 2011, p. 6.] Lesson 3: the reformation and beyond The history of Christian ethics

Who was bonaventure? Bonaventure was an Italian Franciscan friar (1217-1274 c.e.) who taught theology at the University of Paris.  He attempted, in his theology, to integrate faith and reason, and was influenced by the Platonic tradition, which had prevailed in the centuries before. It is from this perspective that Bonaventure developed a synthesis of Christian theology and morality.  Synthesizing theology and morality  The central characteristic of people was their will, their power to decide and to act.  The intellect, while important, was in the order of means, a tool to be used for action  Love was the centre of the moral life. Knowledge and practical deeds were secondary.  The role of theology is to make intelligible what scripture teaches about Christ and the moral life. Who was Thomas Aquinas? Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) was an Italian Dominican priest of the Roman Catholic Church and member of the Dominican religious order.  His work is unparalleled in terms of its influence in the Church. At the time of Aquinas, the writings of Aristotle were being rediscovered and Aquinas drew on Aristotle for his articulation of Christian theology.  For Aquinas (following Aristotle) humans are intellectual beings or rational animals.  Their highest achievement is contemplation. Interest in ethical questions  Aquinas was concerned with protecting the notion of a human agent who is the responsible author of his or her own actions.  Human beings are not just "spectators” of the world-order in which everything that happens is caused by God's will. Rather, human beings are actors in the world. God has given human beings the capacity to be reasonable and responsible agents. Aristotle’s influence on Aquinas ***because Aquinas drew on the philosophy of Aristotle, we need to consider more deeply Aristotle’s thought. Briefly, Aristotle:  rejected Plato's explanation of reality as involving unchanging Forms.  was concerned with the phenomenal world, that is, the world that can be known empirically.  was concerned to differentiate reality and understand how it grows, develops and changes. For Aristotle, the good consists in the realization of the ends that are potential in one's nature. (Think of an acorn. The 'end' that is potential in an acorn's 'nature' is an oak tree.) Thomas Aquinas was hugely influenced by Aristotle's notion of the good. We see this influence in Aquinas' ethics, which is described as teleological.

For Aquinas, a good life under the control of right reason consists of the best use of:  one's rational powers (intellect and will)  one's lower capacities (appetites and bodily activities) The relationship between ends (teleology) and means (deontology): What is teleology?  Derived from the Greek word telos meaning “end, purpose, or goal” and logos meaning “the study of”.  There is a theory of ethics called teleological ethics. o The focus here is on the “end” or “consequence” of an act. o An example of this type of ethics is—Utilitarianism.  Asserts that the criterion of right and wrong actions is whether they maximize welfare, that is, the greatest good for the greatest number. What is deontology?  Comes from the Greek word deon meaning “law, or duty” and logins meaning “the study of”.  The focus in deontological ethics is the law, the rule or the duty, which takes priority over the results of an action. ENDS—ETHICS OF CONSEQUENCES—TELEOLOGY FOCUS—THE RESULTS OF A SITUATION. MEANS—ETHICS OF PRINCIPLE—DEONTOLOGY FOCUS—THE PRINCIPLES OR RULES THAT GUIDE OUR ACTIONS. ***christians must as in an impacted and sinful world in which, not infrequently, the possibilities of action or inaction all seem, in different ways, morally questionable. Harmless activity may not be harmless. o Some insist: “the higher and more noble an end is, the more it justifies any means used in achieving it”. o Others insist: “in moral matters, the mean affects the end”/ o EX: the means are not morally indifferent, and a sharp distinction between means and ends is never possible. Example: greenpeace Members of greenpeace, an international organization that works for environmental conservation and the preservation of endangered species, often break the law in their effort to get publicly about what they think is right and wrong. For these members, the end (raising awareness of and preventing activities that are harming the environment or endangering species) justifies the means (breaking the law, damaging property, endangering their own lives and the lives of others). The head of greenpeace, Kumi Naidoo, states it is justifiable to break the law inert people to the threat of climate change. “The head of Greenpeace has said that it is justifiable to break the law in order to alert people to the threat of climate change. Kumo said the organization had no intention of scaling back its tactics as he compared protesters’ actions to Mahatma Ghandi, Nelson Mandela, and Martin Luther king saying they

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too broke the law.” In some ways we will probably intensify it because all the science is telling us that time is running out for this planet”, he said. However, he emphasized that the group was “deeply committed to peace” and would not resort to violence. Last week 54 greenpeace protestors were chargedwith trespass after spending the night on the roof of the house of parliament in October last year.” Example: my brother’s keeper Someone whose name is Ed comes to see me because he wants to know where my brother is. I know that Ed wants to find my brother because my brother owes him money. I also know that Ed plans to physically injure my brother because of a debt. So, I tell Ed that my brother got a job in canada and he will not return for months. This, in fact, is not true. I am lying. My brother is staying with me, and I know he is at my place as I am talking to Ed. Deontologist—what you did is wrong because you lied and lying is always wrong no matter what the circumstances. End—keeping brother safe, never justifies the means—lying. Teleologist—the lying is justified because it protects my brother from harm. End—protecting brother from harm, justifies the means—lying. The basis of natural law The basic principle of natural law— good should be sought after and done, evil avoided. This is known through an intellectual intuition of practical precepts of moral behaviour. Natural Law Constitutes an objective set of principles that can be seen as true by the natural light of reason. The claim of the natural law tradition is that moral knowledge is accessible not just to believers but to anyone who is willing to reflect critically on human experience. Natural law assumes that human beings are essentially good and have a capacity to know and choose what is right. Natural law refers to some innate quality or capacity within human beings that guides us through life and helps us to choose what is good and avoid what is evil. So, according to the theory of natural law, moral knowledge is accessible through reflecting on our own experience. The Biblical Basis of Natural Law The parables of Jesus use ordinary human experiences to highlight basic human values. Paul, in particular, was explicit in his reference to 'nature' as a source of moral knowledge for those who did not have access to the revelation of the God of Israel. Critical reflection on experience is sufficient for moral enlightenment. (Romans 1:20) Other sources of natural law: Greek Philosophy However, the natural law tradition in Christian ethics is due more to Greek philosophy than scriptures. The key Greek philosopher was Aristotle who influenced Aquinas in particular. For Aristotle, human nature is rational, therefore, morally good actions are those that are directed (through reason) toward the full actualization of human potential. While we all have natural capacities for virtue (or vice), these capacities must be developed as habits through practice. In the same way that we become better athletes or musicians through practice, we become virtuous by doing virtuous things. We begin by doing objectively virtuous acts because they are taught to us or commanded of us. We are not yet interiorly motivated or do not yet use our reason to choose the "good". Eventually, through education and habit, virtuous actions come from our own reasoning and intention. Romans and the 'Law' of the Natural Order

Another important source of natural law were the Romans who emphasized the 'law' of the natural order. Cicero (d. 43 b.c.e.) wrote of "natural law as the innate power of reason to direct action. To live according to the law given in nature is to live according to what reason commands." "Order of Nature" and "Order of Reason" By the time of the Middle Ages and Aquinas, two strains of interpretation of natural law prevailed. One was the "order of nature" which focused on the physical and biological structures given in nature as a source of morality. The second, the "order of reason" focused on the human capacity to discover in experience what promotes human flourishing and well-being. Aquinas accepted both strains. Connecting natural aw with practical reason and eternal law Aquinas links natural law both with practical reason (of which humans are capable) and with eternal law, which posits that god is ultimately the source of moral value and moral obligation. Everything participates in god’s eternal law according to its nature. So animals participate by instinct and humans participate through reason. The work of reason  For Aquinas, even though the immediate source of moral knowing is human reason, God’s eternal law is the underlying source.  The work of reason is to discover what being human means. Reason does this by reflecting on the total human experience, not merely the biological.  For Aquinas, reason “entails the totality of the human tendency to want to know the whole of reality and come to truth”. Our moral duties  So, for Aquinas our moral duties are known through our best practical judgement on what is requires for any particular person problem.  His understanding of natural law: o Mora duties can be ascertained by reflection on human nature. o God’s plan for us is built into our nature by god’s creation of us. o Based on Roman’s 2:14-16-a law written in our hearts. Reflection on human nature  By using our reason to reflect on our human nature, we can discover both: “Specific” ends  The specific ends toward which we tend.  An example of a specific end is learning to play a musical instrument. The actual effort we undergo to learn to plan a musical instrument aims at the specific end of playing the instrument. “General” ends  The general end of which God created us.  An example of general end is “happiness” toward which all human beings are oriented. We all seek happiness as a “general end” of our acts. So, learning to play a musical instrument is the specific end and the happiness we experience in doing this is the general end. When we discovered these ends, it is then possible to determine the means required to achieve them.

To sum up  For Aquinas, this understanding of god’s plan for us, built into our nature by god’s act of creation is natural law.  For Aquinas, special revelation is not necessary for moral knowledge. What is nominalistic? The best way to understand the meaning of "nominalism" is to compare it with "realism". Both nominalism and realism are epistemological theories (epistemology is the study of knowledge, that is, it is concerned with how we know anything.) We can compare the theories of nominalism and realism through an example. Think about a concept like "humanity". What exactly is "humanity"? Realism would say that "humanity" is a universal concept that exists apart from the individuals to which "humanity" refers and is something that all human beings share in common. We can think of a philosopher such as Plato who argued that there exists somewhere a more perfect form of everything that exists in the world. So, for realism, somewhere there exists "humanity". Nominalism, on the other hand, would say that there is no reality called "humanity" independent of the particular individuals. So, for example, there are four individuals – John, Mary, Susan and Peter. These individuals may share something in common that we call "humanity" but "humanity" is located in John, Mary, Susan and Peter and not apart from the individuals to which it refers. Who was Martin Luther? If Aquinas built his moral theology on the basis of a natural law providing human beings with the innate capacity to discern good and evil, nominalistic denied the possibility for human beings o know anything beyond the concrete and the particular. Thus, if the church and society could not impose rational guides for action the other alternative became the demand for conformity. We see develop in the 13 th and the 14 th centuries a kind of ethical legalism which, as with most forms of legalism, led to enormous abuse by those in power, both in the church and in the nations. Into this situation came one of the most influential figures in the history of Christendom was Martin Luther (1483-546) a German, Augustinian monk. Luther-the originator of the reformation in Europe. Reformation:  The 16 th -century movement to reform of the doctrines and practices of the Roman Catholic Church which ended in the establishment of protesting churches. Luther was tortured by person feelings of inadequacy and sinfulness. He studied the writings of st.Paul and taught theology at the university of Wittenberg. However, when Luther became an Augustinian monk, the church was far removed from the gospel ideal. Luther was a perfectionist and could never live up to his own expectations himself. Indulgence:  Luther’s criticism with the Catholic Church centred on the use of “indulgences”.  Roman Catholic teaching states that: “an indulgence is what we receive when the church lessens the temporal (lasting only for a short time) penalties to which we may be subject even though our sins have been forgiven”. In the early church and at the time of Luther, penances could be quite severe. The church taught that penances could be shortened or lessened through acts of charity or good worlds. This became the source of extreme tension for Luther when, in 1516, johann tetzel, a Dominican friar and paper commissioner for indulgences, was sent to Germany by the Roman Catholic Church to sell indulgences to raise money to rebuild St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome. The Catholic Church taught that justification depends not only on faith but also on the acts of charity and good work a person performs. Donating money to the church was considered a ‘good work’.

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Protest against the corruption in the church In response, Luther emphasized that faith alone saved a human being. In 1517, he launched his protest against the corruption of the papacy and the Roman Catholic Church. Luther and most of the reformation movements stressed return to original gospel teachings. Faith working through love: Luther felt that natural law undercuts the need for grace. He emphasized that fallen humanity is in need of Christ's revelation if human beings are to know what is good in God's eyes. Here Luther referred to Paul's letter to the Romans, 1:17. 16 For I am not ashamed of the gospel: it is the power of God for salvation to everyone who has faith, to the Jew first and also to the Greek. 17 For in it the righteousness of God is revealed through faith for faith; as it is written, "He who through faith is righteous shall live." Luther roundly condemned the moral and rational work-righteousness inherent in the philosophical theology of the Roman Church. He emphasized that before God, reason must submit to scripture and works must bow to faith. Reason and good works are the result of the freedom gained through the unmerited forgiveness of Christ. Luther portrays the biblical pattern of a life of "faith working through love." To sum up, Luther:  Rejected the intellectual tradition of Thomas Aquinas  Re-appropriates the biblical tradition with its emphasis on surrender to God.  Insists that faith alone saves - not good works. Who was john Calvin? John Calvin (1509-1564) French theologian and significant architect of the Reformation. Calvin taught:  Christian life understood to be a life of faith and faithfulness in response to God's grace.  Salvation is entirely the gift of God's grace; in no respect is it the effect of human "works."  Moral effort is response to grace, essential but not independently initiated. For Calvin, Christian ethics is about the response of the human subject to what God has already done. Calvin stressed the importance of "vocation" and that God calls us to a morally responsive life. Calvin’s legacy: predestination Calvin accepted Luther's criticisms against the Roman Catholic Church and pushed the positions to their logical conclusions, e.g., if everything was God's work, then an absolute and formal pre-destination was clearly a fact, and human free will played no part in one's being saved or lost. Calvin systematically works out a doctrine of predestination and defines predestination as... “God's eternal decree, by which He compacted with himself what he willed to become of each man. For all are not created in equal condition; rather, eternal life is foreordained for some, eternal damnation for others.” (Institutes of the Christian Religion, III, 21, 5) Free will and determinism Believers in free will:  at least some human actions are the result of free rational choice of humans. Supporters of determinism:

 all human behaviour is due to the operation of causes similar to those which determine the course of events in the natural world. Various forms of determinism:  physical and chemical — for example, our genes determine many aspects of our personality. There is medication for depression because many think that depression is caused by a chemical imbalance.  Sociological — behaviour is determined by the society we live in. Most people simply conform to the standards and patterns of behaviour of the society to which they belong. For example, a social institution like schools will shape how we think about things. Also, we may think we choose the clothes we wear but in reality, the range of choices is determined by the society in which we live.  Economic — human behaviour is shaped by economic factors. Marxism is an example of this. Studies suggest that crime rates are higher among the very poor.  Theological — for example, Calvin’s strong emphasis on divine providence and predestination. Reason and Grace vs. Freedom and Determinism The dialectic between reason and grace is the theological counterpart of the ethical dialectic between freedom and determinism.  Some think that the human will is so disabled by sin that it cannot choose good except through the supervention of grace (thus determinism).  Others think that the human person has the capacity to develop and grow and so has the capacity to choose good over evil (Thus freedom). Counter reformation Counter Reformation is the revival of the Roman Catholic Church between the mid-16th and mid-17th centuries. It had its origins in reform movements that were independent of the Protestant Reformation, but it increasingly became identified with, and took its name from, efforts to 'counter' the Protestant Reformation. Responding to Protestantism create it. It gave Catholic reform a dynamic and vitality. There was an effort to revitalize the ancient practices. Medieval Catholicism sought its highest expressions of devotion in the monastic life. New Orders and Reforms During the Counter-Reformation, new orders were founded, or new forms were given to established orders.  An example of a new order was the Jesuits, and a new form of an older order (the Franciscans) was the Capuchins. There was general agreement that reform was needed, but no agreement on how it should take shape.  Two main positions: 1) Conciliation and concession with Protestants and 2) Refusing all concession. Increasing the Number of Clergy The history of the Counter-Reformation is in part the history of the triumph of the conservatives and the militant over the conciliatory and the liberal. If there is a single theme running through the reforming endeavours of the Catholic Reformation, it is the quest for a more adequate clergy.  Seminaries were established.  Education provided to the seminarians emphasized the behaviour necessary for the Catholic  A separate moral theology emerged. The council of Trent

The Council of Trent (1545 - 1563) was the 19th ecumenical council (a meeting of the bishops of the whole church convened to discuss and settle matters of Church doctrine and practice) held in the Italian city of Trent. The Council was the church's formal response to the challenges of the Reformation movement. It sought to both correct what the Catholic church saw as the imbalance of Luther and the Reformers while at the same time heeding the objections Luther and others raised. At the time of the Council of Trent, the Church took up a defensive posture to protect itself from the Reformation. The Council of Trent sought to provide clear lines which would distinguish Protestant protest from Catholic doctrine. It treated doctrine and discipline in parallel. In its effort to respond to specific challenges of Protestantism it emphasized:  faith alone was not sufficient for justification; it must be accompanied by hope and love (charity).  unwritten traditions and Scripture were to be received with equal reverence.  the seven sacraments (Baptism, Confirmation, Holy Communion, Confession, Marriage, Holy Orders and Last Rites). Trent emphasized free will and good works: Trent formally incorporated into its binding teaching the doctrine of the ancient Council of Orange affirming both free will and the gratuity of the beginnings of grace, while denying predestination to damnation. The Legacy of the Council of Trent  Moral theology emerged as a discipline distinct from other theological disciplines. It became cut off from sacred scripture and spirituality and became aligned with canon law.  The focus was practical concern: is a particular action sinful and, if so, how sinful?  The point of reference was the 10 commandments and the laws of the Church.  No real consideration of the character or virtue of a person. But Trent added, following the exhortation of the Bible and of common sense, the necessity of doing good works. It also clearly affirmed that good works in Christ merit a reward, not of themselves, but because of Christ.  The Council of Trent insisted that the Christian sacraments were efficacious instruments through which God acted to confer grace.  There was great emphasis placed on the practicalities of behaviour.  Seminaries were established to train priests. This helped to ensure clear and consistent teaching of doctrine.  For the first time a clear and formal system for the education of clergy was developed. Clergy were taught the behaviour necessary for the Catholic.  The Council of Trent insisted on the importance of knowing proper moral action. The importance of the sacrament of penance: The moral manual method:  As a reforming council, Trent stressed the importance of the sacrament of penance.  Attempted to reform the Catholic institution and catholic life.  All catholic were obligated to confess once a year, therefore it was necessary to train priests. The moral manual method spread in this context. Determining clear guidelines:

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 In the seminar, the teaching of morality became closely allied with canon law.  The focus was determining clear and concise guides for the kinds of behaviour, which were allowed, and those that were forbidden. Emphasis on the sacrament:  The emphasis on the sacrament of penance meant priests emphasis on the sacrament needed to be trained to serve as confessors.  The practical problem of the confessor was to determine in the penitent had sinned or not and if the penitent had sinned or not and if the penitent had sinned, how serious was the offence.  This became the primary focus of moral theology—determining the sinfulness of actions and the principles underlying the correct solution of cases. Moral theology focus:  The manuals of moral theology emerged as a way of helping priests in their role as confessors.  The manual was focused on the individual acts in order to determine the degree of sinfulness.  The moral manuals attempted to lay out what was permitted and what was forbidden. ***the key questions used to assess one's actions were?  What am I doing?  Is it allowed?  How far can I go? ***moral theology became more and more legalistic and narrowing. Lesson 4: Enlightenment to Modernity Key Terms Indulgences:

 Refers to the lessening of a punishment for a sin committed. In medieval times, Christians contributed money to the Church to lessen their penance for sins committed. In Luther’s time, Pope Leo X granted indulgences for those who donated money to reconstruct St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome. Reformation:  The 16th century movement for reform of the doctrines and practices of the Roman Catholic Church which ended in the establishment of Protestant Churches. Ethical Absolutes:  An absolute value or good is one that maintains its validity under any and every circumstance.  Three arguments against: 1. There is no objectivity or universality to moral judgements, nor any unified human nature. 2. Rules are relative to a geographical time and place. 3. The problems of legalism and moralism. Norms:  Guides to being and doing, particularly guides to types of action that are right or wrong, obligatory or permitted.  The language of norms is general and encompasses such other language as ideals, laws, standards, principles and rules.  What is the strength or weight of a norm? o Absolute: it cannot be overridden under any circumstances, and it has priority over all other rules with which it might come into conflict. o Prima facie: there is always a strong moral reason for acting in accord with this rule, but this reason may not always be decisive. Even though the rule is always morally relevant, it may sometimes yield to stronger rules. o Relative: a mere maxim or rule of thumb that illuminates but does not prescribe what ought to be done. Enlightenment Learning Objective (1) The Enlightenment period and the challenges it presents.  The Enlightenment refers to a period of European thought from approximately 1650 to 1800 c.e. It was a time when experience and reason were emphasized and there was a mistrust of religion and traditional authority. There was an optimism that with education human beings, through their effort would progress indefinitely.  An example of optimism is found in English statesman and philosopher of science, Francis Bacon’s book New Organon (published in 1620) where Bacon posits that enlightenment and a better world are within the power of human beings.  Much of what we value today stems from the Enlightenment period, for example, the emphasis on human rights and progress (creating a better world). Some Key Events & Movements Precipitated by the Enlightenment 1. Overview

 The Enlightenment was a time of advancement at many different levels allowing for a broadening of horizons causing significant changes in the way people thought. Because it was a period of worldwide exploration and discovery, there was a deeper awareness that human beings are situated in history and in culture. There was more awareness of other cultures and of other ways of thinking about reality. 2. Industrial Revolution  The Industrial Revolution began, energized by hydraulic and steam power. Peasants were driven from the land to live in industrial towns and cities seeking employment in the new factories. 3. American Revolution  The American Revolution where the thirteen colonies of the “new world” gained independence from Britain and with this the promotion of democracy and the social contract. 4. French Revolution  The French Revolution, which uprooted absolute monarchy and the feudal system, shook France and Europe to its foundations. There was an emphasis on popular (of the people) sovereignty and the inalienable rights of all, not just the elite. 5. Modern Science  Modern science, essentially a product of the Enlightenment, made major strides during the 1st and 19th centuries. Perhaps even more important were the changes wrought by scientific method in the way people looked at their world. Systematic empirical research required radical reexamination of human nature, factual history, and the materials and traditions upon which theology and Christian ethics were based. 6. The new era  The new era, optimistically referred to as the Enlightenment, offered further challenges to the intellectual and spiritual dominance of Christian theology while also influencing the direction of Christian ethics. Quotes from key thinkers who influenced the Enlightenment period 1. Rene Descartes (1596-1650): “Cogito Ergo Sum” I think therefore I am. 2. Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679): We agree to be ruled over in return for protection against each other. 3. David Hume (1711-1776): He is happy whom circumstances suit his temper; but he is more excellent who suits his temper to any. 4. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804): All human knowledge starts with experience, but knowledge of the world also depends upon the nature. 5. John Locke (1632-1704): The end of law is not to abolish or restrain, but to preserve and enlarge freedom. For in all the states of created beings capable of law, where there is now law, there is no freedom. 6. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778): Man was a noble savage when in the state of nature, before the creation of civilization. He has been corrupted by the social interdependence of society.

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7. Francois-Maries Arouet known as Voltaire (1694-1778): He [the Theist] speaks a language that all peoples understand, while they do not understand one another… He believes that religion does not consist either in the opinions of an unintelligible metaphysic, or in vain display, but in worship and justice. The Influence on Ethics The Enlightenment thinkers dramatically influenced ethics. They presented a materialist view of the human being. There was an insistence on direct observation of nature and on explaining everything that happens in the world in terms of the laws of nature - grace has no place in the world of the Enlightenment.  So, reason and individualism were emphasized at the expense of tradition. The motto of the Enlightenment was: o Dare to know! (Sapere aude.) “Have the courage to use your own understanding.” (Kant) The Enlightenment thinkers believed that human reason has the power to find the truth and to live in accordance with this truth so there is no need of special revelation. There is emphasis on the individual conscience and each person’s capacity to discern good and evil. Human beings could discover for themselves what was good and they could achieve it themselves. The role of tradition and authority in guiding individuals in moral living was downplayed. Forms and Expressions of Enlightenment The Enlightenment took many different forms and was expressed in different philosophical movements. In terms of ethics, the Enlightenment was humanistic and tolerant. Morality was secularized. It was a time of crisis for Christianity because religion and a metaphysical interpretation of existence were being challenged.  The French Enlightenment writer, philosopher and historian, Voltaire, described the situation this way: o “What our eyes and mathematics demonstrate, we must take as true. In all the rest we can only say: we are ignorant.” Two important developments resulted from the Enlightenment:  The autonomy of human reason. There was an emphasis on self-sufficiency.  The sense of the significance of history (historical consciousness). Historical Consciousness Historical consciousness is an awareness that human beings are born into a language, a time and a culture that is not static but is “on the move”. So, what we care about and value depends upon the particular situation in which we find ourselves. Time and place shape our worldview. Time and place shape what we value and how we understand what is ethical and what is unethical. With historical consciousness, however, came the problem of historicism, the theory that social and cultural phenomena are determined by history. The implication of this for ethics is that knowing what is good is also determined by history and so there is no universal understanding of the good.  “If every world-view, every philosophical system, every moral code is the product of a particular age with its particular advantages and problems and can make no claim to universal validity, then are we not reduced to organizing our individual lives and our societies on the basis of personal preference, advantage, or groundless tradition?”

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The Challenge of Historicism The enormous challenge of historicism to Christianity, both the Protestant and Roman Catholic churches, was even greater than the upheaval caused by the aftermath of the Reformation.  Why? Because historicism shook the churches to their very foundation. Traditional perspectives on the human person’s status and place in nature were being challenged. Some examples:  When Copernicus established that the earth was not the centre of the universe, the status of the earth and human beings diminished somewhat.  Similarly, Darwin’s theory that humans developed in an unbroken line from the other animal species seemed to dethrone humans as the pinnacle of God’s creation. Reaction to Modernity Learning Objective (2) The reaction of both the Roman Catholic Church and the Protestant Church to the Enlightenment and modernity. Roman Catholicism In the face of so much criticism of and challenge to the validity of its teachings the Roman Catholic Church fell back on and promoted certitudes of faith. Rather than exploring the truth- value of Enlightenment criticism of its traditional views of human living and moral behaviour, the Church dug its heels in, so to speak, and retired into a dogmatic corner. In other words, it emphasized belief in traditional dogma and doctrine and the teachings of the hierarchy of the Church (the Pope, Cardinals, Bishops, and Priests). The Threat of Historicism:  Faced with the threat of historicism, the Catholic Church more strongly adhered to an objective natural order, an order that was unchanging and permanent. It was an order that could be discerned through reason and established laws that demanded conformity. So, we see the Catholic Church embrace a more legalistic and rigid model of ethics. It emphasized the certitude of its moral teachings. Promoting Sin vs Promoting Good  Ethics and morality was seen in terms of limits rather than what promotes human flourishing. In other words, for the Catholic Church, ethics and morality had to do with preventing sin rather than promoting good. Protestantism Many forms of Protestantism emerged after Luther and Calvin. There was a mixture of responses to the challenges of the Enlightenment. For example, there was an emphasis on the individual and his or her relation to God. This manifested in a focus on an inner spiritual life, which was a form of Pietism. There was also an emphasis on intellectual assent to correct doctrine, a kind of Protestant orthodoxy, which was a departure from the Reformation emphasis on faith in the gospel alone. Demands of “this world” and the demands of God:

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 Tension existed between the demands of “this world” and the demands of God and God’s kingdom. In some Protestant movements, these worlds came to be expressed in a strong work ethic and a strong inner spiritual life.  This tension is reminiscent of Martin Luther’s two kingdoms: “God has ordained two governments: the spiritual, by which the Holy Spirit produces Christians and righteous people under Christ; and the temporal, which restrains the un-Christian and wicked so that … they are obliged to keep still and to maintain an outward peace.” Catholic Concerns Learning Objective (3) Issues and concerns of modern Roman Catholic ethics. In the period of the late 19th and early 20th century, a fundamentally important debate emerges around questions concerning the nature of moral responsibility. The debate had to do with the tension between freedom and responsibility and between freedom and authority. As we will see, these questions are played out in the many reforms that happened in Roman Catholic moral theology in the 20th century. There is a revamping of natural law → a profound shift in the Roman Catholic tradition away from a legalistic form of ethics (which tried to control human behaviour) towards more openness to the human person’s capacity to think through and discern good and evil. Reworking Natural Law One important reform had to do with a reworking of natural law. There was a shift toward an emphasis on God giving human beings the capacity to discover the “good”. This revamping of natural law stressed an intrinsic, intellectualistic, and realistic understanding of natural law as the basis for moral theology as distinguished from the extrinsic, voluntaristic, and nominalistic approach of the manuals. As we saw earlier, the manuals stressed obedience rather than reasoning. The renewal insisted that the good is the primary ethical category. It held that something is commanded because it is good and the good can be discerned. It emphasized the centrality of the virtues and rejected the legal model of the manuals. More about Moral Manuals.  The manuals of moral theology were textbooks with the primary purpose of preparing priests for the role of confessors in the sacrament of penance. Their orientation was pragmatic and casuistic with the ultimate goal of determining what was sinful and what was the gravity of the sin.  “The moral theology of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries…manifested not merely a process of developing theological specialization but a bifurcation in the inherent relationship of the moral and spiritual dimensions of Christian living. Catholic moral theology, under the influence of the philosophy of nominalism, gradually became focused on acts, rules, and casuistry, losing the broader Thomistic emphasis on virtues in the context of a striving to attain the ultimate end. Discussion of virtue was reduced almost to providing an organizing structure for discussing the sinful acts that ‘opposed’ particular values. Catholic moral theology - all the way up to the manuals of moral theology in use before the Second Vatican Council - remained tied to and more akin with emphasis in canon law than to dogmatic technology and spirituality.” - Mark O’Keefe (1994)

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The Law of Christ The most significant work in the revival of Roman Catholic moral theology in the 20th century was Law of Christ by a German theologian named Bernard Haring. The book was originally published in German in 1954 and the intent was to revive moral theology. Haring is considered by many the most progressive moral theologian of the 20th century. He revived a Christocentric tradition of moral theology. In other words, he focused on the teachings of Christ in the Gospel to guide moral living. Several important aspects of Haring’s book are the following:  It emphasized scriptures and saw all the moral life in terms of the believer’s response to the gracious gift of God in Christ.  It stressed the person and the growth of the person through continual conversion.  It attempted to relate moral theology to the broader concerns of scripture, systematic theology, and liturgy.  It revived an earlier Christocentric tradition in moral theology.  It was addressed directly to the laity (non-clerical) of the Church. The book promoted a new vitality in reflection on moral living. It connected more directly with the roots of Christian ethics, that is, the New Testament and the teachings of Jesus Christ. At the same time, it was more contemporary addressing morality drawing on the knowledge and tools of 20th century thought. The Second Vatican Council The Second Vatican Council (1962-1965) was the twenty-first Ecumenical Council of the Catholic Church. An Ecumenical Council is an occasional meeting of ecclesiastical persons (Cardinals, Bishops, etc.) to discuss matters of doctrine and Church discipline. The Catholic Church witnessed great changes during the Second Vatican Council. These changes had a significant impact on Catholic moral theology. The changes brought about through the Council were already in progress prior to the Council. There were many new developments in scripture, theology, liturgy, and catechetics that had begun to appear before Vatican II. The Council gave authoritative and official approval to these developments. The Second Vatican Council was a time of tremendous change but it is important to remember that the Council demonstrated great continuity with the teachings and traditions of the Roman Catholic Church. Seeking Balance within the Church:  The Second Vatican Council sought to bring about and maintain a balance between: o The authority of scripture and tradition, o The role of faith and reason in a believer’s efforts to follow God’s will, o Grave and nature, o Jesus Christ and the church, o Faith and good works.  The Council sought a balance while emphasizing dependence of the second on the first, that is, dependence of tradition on scripture, reason on faith, nature on grace, the church on Jesus Christ, and good works on faith. Aftermath of the Second Vatican Council Major developments in Catholic Moral Theology Introduction

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 In the aftermath of the Second Vatican Council we see major developments occurred in the following areas: 1. The role of scripture in moral knowledge 2. Moral theology’s relationship to all theology 3. Moral theology’s philosophical underpinnings 4. Moral theology as life centred 5. Dialogue is sought with other religions 6. Changes in the approach to social and political ethics 1. The Role of Scripture in Moral Knowledge  Catholic exegetes employ a critical method in understanding the scriptures. For example, the method known as “historical critical method” seeks to establish the origins of the text in order to understand “the world behind the text”. There is an emphasis on general themes in scripture (for example, disposition of the person and important values in social life) and less on particular questions. Scripture cannot be used as “proof text” for specific moral conclusions. (Proof texting is the practice of using a passage from the Bible to establish a theological position or a moral teaching without considering the context of the passage.) 2. Moral Theology’s Relationship to all Theology  This means it is more integrated with other aspects of theology. There was recognition that both faith and scripture had to be related to the everyday world. Moral theology recognizes the importance of Christology, particularly a Christology “from below” that emphasizes the importance of Jesus and his life. Political and liberation theologies draw from this. 3. Moral Theology’s Philosophical Underpinnings  There are three significant shifts here: 1. More attention was given to historical situatedness emphasizing the particular, the individual, and change. 2. Shifting the focus to the person and the subject rather than on nature and the object (a personalist perspective). So, attention to the person as the starting point of theory rather than a theory being applied to a person. 3. A shift from “physicalism”, identifying the human moral act with the physical structure of the act, to looking at the whole context of the action. 4. Moral Theology as Life Centred  It is not focused so much on what is wrong, but on promoting virtue and human flourishing. Conversion (a change of heart) is stressed as the fundamental response of the Christian to the call of God. Sin is seen not so much as an act but more as a choice to move away from union with God. The human person is both agent and subject. There is an emphasis on individual conscience and on moral development throughout life. However, there is also recognition of the communal and social dimensions of human existence, that is, our acts affect others. 5. Dialogue is Sought with Other Religions  We see an emphasis on dialogue exhibited at the Council and in the Council documents. This dialogue is sought with other religions, with contemporary philosophies, with the sciences and with all persons of good will.

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6. Changes in the Approach to Social and Political Ethics  We see significant changes in the approach to social and political ethics (for example, acceptance of religious liberty, the emergence of liberation and political theologies) but less changes in issues related to personal, sexual, and medical morality. Disputes in Catholic Moral Theology Three Significant Disputes in Contemporary Catholic Moral Theology. 1. Is there a unique Christian morality? 1. Some believe Christian morality offers nothing unique that does not already exist in morality in general. 1. Others argue that faith, grace, and belief in Jesus Christ should have unique effect on Christians and how they act. 2. Are there universal moral norms? 1. Are certain acts intrinsically evil independent of intention, circumstance, or consequence? Or b. Can certain acts be justified for proportionate reason? 3. Is dissent from official Church teaching allowed? 1. Some argue that dissent is possible because some moral questions are not central to faith and disagreement does not implicate one’s faith. In addition, human beings are limited in understanding and so we can never achieve certitude that excludes the possibility of error. 1. Others stress that the Holy Spirit is present in the official teachers of the Church. Ethical Absolutes & Relativism in Ethics Ethical Absolutes  An absolute value or good is one that maintains its validity under any and every circumstance. There are three arguments against the possibility of ethical absolutes: 1. There is no objectivity or universality to moral judgments nor any unified human nature. 2. Rules are relative to a geographical time and place. 3. Ethical absolutes lead to the problem of legalism and moralism, which does not promote human good. Relativism in Ethics  What is right or wrong, good or bad, for a person varies in relation to the cultural group to which he or she belongs. There is no standard or objective morality applicable to all human beings. What actually is right differs in different contexts. Protestant Concerns Learning Objective (4) Issues and concerns of modern protestant ethics. Observations & Reactions Three general observations:

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1. We see in Protestant ethics a tension between the historical critical method in interpreting scripture and a literal interpretation of scripture. 2. The Social Gospel movement was a prominent Protestant movement in the late 19th century. It advocated social reform through the Christian gospel. 3. Without a strong central authority there is more freedom to explore new methods, for example, in scripture study and in ethical deliberations. In the twentieth century, Protestant theologian are reacting against two perspectives: 1. Autonomous reasoning in ethics. This was built on Kantian practical reason which asserts that moral principles can be obtained through the categorical imperative: “Act only according to that maximum whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law.” (Immanueel Kant, 1785) It is a law given by the pure reason, and binding universally on every rational will. So, there is no reference to metaphysics or theological reflection. 2. The influence of the social gospel. So, dialogue regarding faith and reason continues… Key Figures Major Figures in Protestant Ethics 1. Karl Barth (1886-1968): German theologian  Barth denied the possibility of attaining any knowledge of God by the use of reason.  He stressed God’s action as independent of every existing human order. All we can do is accept God’s revelation in faith.  Barth was against liberalism. For example, belief in human progress and confidence in cultural achievements.  For Barth, the divine will cannot be encapsulated in rules or moral theology. The gospel is before human law.  Barth was against private pietism. He promoted a social vision of Christianity but not one that adhered to the status quo. He promoted the “Confessing Church” against the Nazi regime. [Confessing Church: developed during the 1930s from their resistance to Adolf Hitler’s attempt to make the churches an instrument of National Socialist (Nazi) propaganda and politics.] 2. Rudolf Bultmann (1884-1976): German Lutheran theologian and New Testament Scholar  Bultmann introduced existentialism into Christian theology. [Existentialism is a philosophy that emphasizes the individual; in particular, the individual's experience of choice.] He saw the moral life as a relationship to the Word of God in particular situations not in essential sets of human values.  For Bultmann, the moral life is a radical obedience without reliance on rules or principles. Ethics is relational in its foundation.  Bultmann characterizes Jesus’ ethic as one of radical obedience to doing God’s will at each moment. Each moment should be considered as the “final hour”, that is, the hour of decision: Are we for or against total obedience to God? 3. Emil Brunner (1889-1966): Swiss Protestant theologian  Bruner was the first Protestant theologian to create a systematic articulation of ethics.

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 He promotes a theology of encounter, a personal experience of encounter with God and with others. Ethics emerges from that encounter and not from law which, for Brunner, is secondary.  Brunner emphasized a divine command ethic which eschews laws and principles. [Divine Command Ethics: One way to understand divine command ethics is to compare the following: Is an act right because God wanted (or commanded) it, or did God want (or command) this act because it is right? For divine command ethics, an act is right because God’s commanded it.] 4. Dietrich Bonhoeffer (1906-1945): German Lutheran pastor and theologian  For Bonhoeffer, God’s command is rooted in a person's relationship with God. God’s command is free of prior rational and legal necessity.  Bonhoeffer advocated Christian responsibility. The centre of ethics, for Bonhoeffer, is responsible action in face of evil. Evil is concrete and must be fought through concrete action.  Bonhoeffer was a founding member of the “Confessing Church'' and he joined the resistance against Hitler. He was part of a plot to kill Hitler. He was arrested and executed by the Nazis in 1945. 5. Reinhold Niebuhr (1892-1971): American theologian  Niebuhr’s concrete experience of working as a pastor in the midst of the terrible conditions of industrial America robbed him of hope in human solutions. He did not have hope in humanity’s capability to bring about social change.  Niebuhr shared the impulse of the social gospel but challenged its liberal version marked by the belief in God’s immanence and in human achievement of the social gospel.  He revolted against theological liberalism in America. For Niebuhr, the human situation is one that is dominated by sinfulness.  Niebuhr had no hope for reordering society through political and social persuasion. Situation & Communitarian Ethics Important Methods in Contemporary Protestant Ethics 1. Introduction  The two important methods in contemporary ethics that had their foundation in Protestant thinkers: o Situation ethics o Communitarian ethics 2. What are Situation Ethics?  The central thesis in situation ethics is the inadequacy of universal norms of conduct, even the Ten Commandments, to determine absolutely what I ought to do here and now in these concrete circumstances. For situation ethics, every decision is unique, for it must be made by the individual conscience in a concrete situation that is unique and therefore falls outside the compass of abstract universals. Abstract universals may have their use as general directives, but they have no absolute validity. So, situation ethics stresses the uniqueness of the situation in which a moral decision is made and diminishes the role of general

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principles. For example, stealing, under certain circumstances (extreme need) may be morally justified. One important criticism of situation ethics is that, pushed to its extreme, it would result in a fragmentation of the moral life into isolated segments, and a dissociation of individual choice from community bonds.  A key issue here is the validity or weight of norms . 3. Situation Ethics: What are Norms  Norms are guides to being and doing, particularly guides to types of actions that are right or wrong, obligatory or permitted. The language of norms is general and encompasses such other languages as ideals, laws, standards, principles, and rules.  What is the strength or weight of a norm? o Absolute Norm: cannot be overridden under any circumstances and it has priority over all other rules with which it might come into conflict. o Prima facie Norm: there is always a strong moral reason for acting in accord with that rule, but this reason may not always be decisive. Even though the rule is always morally relevant, it may sometimes yield to stronger rules. o Relative Norm: a mere maxim or rule of thumb that illuminates but does not prescribe what ought to be done. 4. What are Communitarian Ethics?  The focus in communitarian ethics is on communal responsibility. Ethics is grounded in communal values. So communitarian ethics is interested in the values that are realized in engaging in shared practices. The shared practice produces internal goods. So, communitarian ethics emphasizes the influence of society on individuals. Values are rooted in a common history and tradition.  A key issue here is value and value judgments . 5. Communitarian Ethics: What are Value and Value Judgments?  What exactly is a value? How do we make judgments about it? o Subjectivist position:  Value is constituted by the feelings aroused in the person.  Value does not reside in the object but depends instead on the subjective response. o There are two criticisms of this position: 1. The value does not come into existence when we attend to it. 2. Sometimes what attracts human interest turns out to be bad.  Objectivist position: o Value denotes characteristics of objects and belongs to the objects themselves. They are discovered by the mind sensitive to their existence.  Judgement of value: embraces not only the basic assertion of values or goods as values, but also the application of the standards implied to individual situations, actions, and objects.

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