Intrinsic Good and Evil Acts; Voluntary and Involuntary Acts; Kant on Will
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Philosophy
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Feb 20, 2024
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Ethics
INTRODUCTION:
Today we examine moral wrongs. These are evil human actions for which we are
responsible. Importantly, not all human actions are subject to the same degree
of moral
praise or blame. For example, John kills an innocent person by irresponsibly speeding
through a neighborhood, while Joe kills an innocent person in order to rob him. John and Joe
have both killed innocents, yet the conditions under which John does so makes him less
morally responsible than Joe.
In the first reading for this assignment, we will look the philosophy of Immanuel Kant.
Kant
famously believes that the only thing of unconditional moral worth is a good will and that
duty is the primary ethical concept.
In the second reading, Aquinas introduces his definition of evil and good and the conditions
that a human act must meet in order to be the proper object of moral evaluation. In my lecture, I will present some work by a philosopher named David Oderberg. Oderberg
offers a more detailed explanation of Aquinas’ view (which he takes from Aristotle).
Following Aristotle and Aquinas, Oderberg also introduces conditions that lessen moral
responsibility. In the final reading we return to Aquinas to answer the question we engaged last time: can
an action be intrinsically wrong in its species?
ASSIGNED READING:
Selections from the Groundwork
, Immanuel Kant on a Good Will
On Evil,
Q.II, A.2 ‘Does Sin Consist solely of the Will’s Act?’ -
read only the second paragraph of the Answer
(p. 97)
On Evil
, II, A.4 'Is Every Act Morally Indifferent?' o
Read the Answer
and objection 5 with reply
On Evil
, II, A.5 'Are Some Acts Morally Indifferent?' o
Read the Answer
REFLECTION QUESTIONS:
1)
What was the most important thing that you learned from our previous class session? Why do you find this important? I appreciated the content surrounding community. I think it is important for all people to understand that a community is not just an aggregate of individuals, but a group of people seeking some common understanding. This knowledge can help us identify our own communities, whether they serve us, and if we should continue to engage in these communities. 2)
What is one question you have that stems from the previous class session or reading?
READING QUESTIONS:
1)
Kant denies that virtues (“qualities conducive to the good will itself”) have
any inner unconditional worth. Why?
Kant believes that when virtues stand alone, they are just an idea. That is, virtues must
be acted upon in order to have real value.
2)
Kant claims that the only unconditionally good thing is the good will or volition
and not the success or effects (consequences) of an action. What makes the
will good? Kant states that a will is made good depending on the connection of the will to some
moral law and the motivation behind the will.
3)
What is the difference between doing something “in conformity with duty” and
doing something “from duty?”
Doing something “in conformity with duty” is when you fear being punished if you do not
perform the task. Doing something “in conformity from duty”, on the other hand, is doing
something because you believe it to be a moral obligation. 4)
What is the difference between a hypothetical and categorical imperative?
A hypothetical imperative are commands that one follows in certain circumstances,
based on personal goals. Categorical imperatives are commands that a person follows
regardless of circumstances—these depend on moral principles.
5)
Explain how one might will a maxim to become a universal law for Kant.
The universalizability principle from Kant states that, "an act only in accordance with
that maxim through which you can at the same time will that it become a universal law.”
In other words, this means that if you commit an action, then the action should be
replicable by others. 6)
Explain what it means to treat a person as an end for Kant. To treat someone as an end, according to Kant, is to treat them with dignity and
recognize their inherent worth as an individual.. 7)
How does Aquinas define “evil,” “sin,” and “moral wrong”? Give your own
examples of something that would be evil but not sin, and something that
would be sin but not morally wrong (See II.2 Answer).
Aquinas defines evil as a “severance” or removal from the good. A sin is a “deliberate
divide from the divine moral law”. A moral wrong is anything that deviates from the
natural law, which he believes to be an expression of God’s will. Something that would
be considered evil is a small child, like a toddler, picking up and pointing a gun. This is
not a sin, because the toddler has not sense of his actions. Something that is a sin is
lying, but lying can sometimes be considered not morally wrong if it is done to protect
someone.
8) Explain Aquinas’ argument that some acts are
intrinsically
good and
intrinsically
evil (See II.4 Answer
).
Some acts can be considered intrinsically good if they arise from the divine principle and
evil if they exclude the human principle. Human actions share in the divine principle
through natural order, for God impresses all creatures with a desire for the good. This
means that acts are evil when they refuse the natural order, which is an extension of
God’s will and the divine principle.
9) How do consequences (a kind of circumstance of an action) affect the
goodness or evil or an action (see II.4 Reply to objection 5)? Consequences do not determine the overall goodness or evilness of an action. The moral
worth of an action is inherent, and consequences may vary. 10)
Explain the difference between moral acts as regards their species and moral
acts as regards their individual acts and why this distinction is significant to
Aquinas’ answer to this article’s question (see II.5 Answer
).
Moral acts as regards to their species gives “a circumstance gives the species of good or
evil to a moral action, in so far as it regards a special order of reason.
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