The Economic Impact of the Civil War

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1 The Economic Impact of the Civil War: A Comparative Analysis of North and South Student A. Sample Course Prefix-Number: Course Title Month Day, Year

2 Abstract The Civil War had profound economic ramifications for both the North and the South, disrupting established economic structures and shaping the trajectory of American history. While the North experienced rapid industrial expansion and legislative changes facilitating economic modernization, the South faced significant challenges in rebuilding its agrarian economy. Sharecropping emerged as a dominant economic system in the South, perpetuating cycles of poverty and dependence among formerly enslaved people and poor white farmers. Disparities in economic recovery pace and long-term implications persisted between the regions, reflecting enduring social and political divisions within American society. This paper critically evaluates primary and secondary sources to provide insights into the economic impact of the Civil War and its aftermath, highlighting the complexities of post-war reconstruction and its ongoing relevance to contemporary debates.

3 The Economic Impact of the Civil War: A Comparative Analysis of North and South The American Civil War, spanning from 1861 to 1865, stands as a pivotal juncture in the nation's history, leaving an indelible mark on its economic, social, and political fabric for generations to follow. To grasp the full extent of its economic repercussions, it is imperative to scrutinize the prevailing circumstances in both the Northern and Southern states before plunging into the specific consequences of the conflict and subsequent efforts at reconstruction. Preceding the Civil War, the North had undergone significant industrialization, witnessing the burgeoning of manufacturing industries and a burgeoning urban populace 1 . This economic framework fostered abundant job prospects for a diverse labor force, propelling the region's economic advancement 2 . In contrast, the South remained predominantly agrarian, heavily reliant on a plantation-based economy sustained by enslaved labor 3 . The institution of slavery was deeply embedded in Southern societal norms, shaping social dynamics and economic practices 4 . 1 Zallen, Jeremy. “Unredeemed Land: An Environmental History of Civil War and Emancipation in the Cotton South.” Business History Review 93, no. 4 (December 22, 2019): 837. https://search-ebscohost-com.lopes.idm.oclc.org/login.aspx? direct=true&db=edsinc&AN=edsinc.A616968207&site=eds-live&scope=site. 2 Cook, Robert J. Civil War Senator . LSU Press, 2011 3 Beckert, Sven. “Emancipation and Empire: Reconstructing the Worldwide Web of Cotton Production in the Age of the American Civil War.” The American Historical Review 109, no. 5 (December 1, 2004): 1405–38. doi:10.1086/530931. 4 Delfino, Susanna, Michele Gillespie, and Louis M. Kyriakoudes. Southern Society and Its Transformations, 1790-1860. Columbia: University of Missouri, 2011.

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4 The central argument of this paper is to scrutinize and contrast the economic aftermath of the Civil War on both Northern and Southern regions, considering variables such as trade interruption, infrastructure devastation, and depletion of human capital. By dissecting the differing economic structures preceding the war in the two regions, along with the distinct hurdles and prospects presented during post-war reconstruction endeavors, we endeavor to comprehend how the Civil War reconfigured the economic trajectories of each region. Through a comparative analysis, we will evaluate the swiftness of economic recuperation, the persistence of socioeconomic discrepancies, and the enduring repercussions for the nation as a whole. In essence, this paper endeavors to furnish a comprehensive scrutiny of the economic ramifications of the Civil War, casting light on its enduring impacts on both Northern and Southern territories, as well as its broader ramifications for the United States' evolution. Economic Conditions Before the Civil War Before the outbreak of the Civil War, the Northern states had undergone a significant transformation driven by industrialization. This period witnessed the rise of manufacturing industries, fueled by innovations in technology and the availability of capital 5 . Factories producing textiles, machinery, and other goods emerged across the region, contributing to the growth of urban centers such as New York, Philadelphia, and Boston. The North's industrial economy created a diverse array of employment opportunities, attracting workers from rural areas and immigrants seeking economic prosperity 6 . The expansion of the railroad network 5 Zallen, Jeremy. “Unredeemed Land: An Environmental History of Civil War and Emancipation in the Cotton South.” Business History Review 93, no. 4 (December 22, 2019): 837. https://search-ebscohost-com.lopes.idm.oclc.org/login.aspx? direct=true&db=edsinc&AN=edsinc.A616968207&site=eds-live&scope=site. 6 Cook, Robert J. Civil War Senator . LSU Press, 2011

5 further facilitated trade and commerce, connecting Northern cities and enabling the efficient distribution of goods 7 . In contrast to the North, the Southern states remained predominantly agrarian, relying heavily on agriculture as the backbone of their economy. The plantation system, centered around the production of cash crops such as cotton, tobacco, and rice, formed the basis of Southern wealth and prosperity 8 . This agricultural dependency was closely intertwined with the institution of slavery, which provided the labor force necessary for large-scale farming operations 9 . The South's economy was characterized by stark social and economic inequalities, with a small planter elite holding vast land and slave holdings, while the majority of white Southerners were small farmers or laborers, and enslaved African Americans toiled under harsh conditions on plantations 10 . Despite the economic success of the plantation economy, the South lagged behind the North in terms of industrial 7 Lebergott, Stanley. “The South Lost: Commercial Purpose in the Confederacy, 1861- 1865.” Journal of American History 70, no. 1 (June 1983): 58–74. doi:10.2307/1890521. 8 Beckert, Sven. “Emancipation and Empire: Reconstructing the Worldwide Web of Cotton Production in the Age of the American Civil War.” The American Historical Review 109, no. 5 (December 1, 2004): 1405–38. doi:10.1086/530931. 9 Delfino, Susanna, Michele Gillespie, and Louis M. Kyriakoudes. Southern Society and Its Transformations, 1790-1860. Columbia: University of Missouri, 2011. 10 Lebergott, Stanley. “The South Lost: Commercial Purpose in the Confederacy, 1861- 1865.” Journal of American History 70, no. 1 (June 1983): 58–74. doi:10.2307/1890521.

6 development and infrastructure, with much of its wealth concentrated in land and slaves rather than productive capital 11 (Calomiris & Pritchett, 2016). Overall, the economic conditions before the Civil War reflected a stark contrast between the industrialized North and the agrarian South, setting the stage for the profound impact that the conflict would have on both regions' economies. Economic Impact of the Civil War The economic consequences of the Civil War were far-reaching, impacting both the Northern and Southern regions in diverse manners. Initially, the conflict induced a notable upheaval in trade and commerce 12 . The implementation of blockades by the Union Navy impeded the South's capacity to export agricultural products, severely crippling its economic operations and precipitating scarcities of vital commodities and materials. Similarly, the North grappled with trade disturbances as resources were diverted to bolster the war endeavors, culminating in inflationary pressures and disruptions across supply chains. 11 Calomiris, Charles W., and Jonathan Pritchett. "Betting on Secession: Quantifying Political Events Surrounding Slavery and the Civil War†." American Economic Review; Jan2016, Vol. 106 Issue 1, p1-23, 23p, 5 Charts, 4 Graphs, DOI: 10.1257/aer.20131483. 12 Razaghian, Rose. "Financing the Civil War: The Confederacy's Financial Strategy." Working Papers - Yale School of Management's International Center for Finance, 2004, Preceding p1- 45. 47p, DOI: 10.1257/aer.20131483.

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7 Secondly, the Civil War caused widespread destruction of infrastructure 13 (Razaghian, 2004). Battles and military campaigns ravaged roads, railways, bridges, and other vital transportation networks, impeding the movement of goods and people. The destruction of factories, warehouses, and agricultural facilities further hampered economic activity, exacerbating the post-war challenges faced by both regions. Moreover, the conflict resulted in significant human capital losses, particularly in the South. The Emancipation Proclamation, issued by President Lincoln in 1863, declared freedom for all enslaved individuals in Confederate-held territory 14 . While this contributed to the moral cause of ending slavery, it also had profound economic implications. The loss of enslaved laborers dealt a severe blow to the Southern economy, as plantation owners struggled to adapt to new labor arrangements and cope with labor shortages. Additionally, the Civil War triggered significant migration patterns, particularly among African Americans. Fleeing the harsh conditions of slavery and seeking refuge behind Union lines, many African Americans migrated to Northern states or sought employment opportunities in newly liberated areas 15 . This mass migration reshaped demographic patterns 13 Razaghian, Rose. "Financing the Civil War: The Confederacy's Financial Strategy." Working Papers - Yale School of Management's International Center for Finance, 2004, Preceding p1- 45. 47p, DOI: 10.1257/aer.20131483. 14 Paul David Escott. Paying Freedom’s Price : A History of African Americans in the Civil War. The African American History Series. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2016. https://search-ebscohost-com.lopes.idm.oclc.org/login.aspx? direct=true&db=edsebk&AN=1361655&site=eds-live&scope=site. 15 Paul David Escott. Paying Freedom’s Price : A History of African Americans in the Civil War. The African American History Series. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2016. https://search-ebscohost-com.lopes.idm.oclc.org/login.aspx?

8 and labor dynamics, contributing to long-term socioeconomic changes in both the North and the South. In summary, the economic impact of the Civil War was multifaceted, encompassing disruptions in trade and commerce, destruction of infrastructure, and significant human capital losses, including the effects of the Emancipation Proclamation and migration patterns. These consequences would shape the post-war economic landscape and the trajectory of Reconstruction efforts in both regions. Economic Reconstruction in the North After the Civil War, the Northern states entered a phase of economic rebuilding characterized by substantial industrial growth, alterations in labor dynamics, and legislative reforms. The expansion of industry in the post-war era 16 surged due to heightened requirements for products and services arising from wartime activities. Northern factories, previously diverted to manufacturing military supplies during the conflict, redirected their efforts toward consumer goods, leveraging pent-up demand and technological progressions. direct=true&db=edsebk&AN=1361655&site=eds-live&scope=site. 16 Razaghian, Rose. "Financing the Civil War: The Confederacy's Financial Strategy." Working Papers - Yale School of Management's International Center for Finance, 2004, Preceding p1- 45. 47p, DOI: 10.1257/aer.20131483.

9 This period also witnessed notable shifts in labor dynamics and wage policies 17 . The wartime mobilization had created opportunities for women, immigrants, and African Americans to enter the workforce in roles traditionally held by white men. Post-war, these shifts persisted, albeit with some resistance from established labor unions seeking to protect their members' interests. Additionally, wage policies evolved to reflect changing economic conditions, with debates over minimum wage laws and workers' rights gaining prominence in legislative agendas. Legislative changes played a crucial role in shaping the post-war economic landscape of the North. The Reconstruction Amendments, particularly the 13th Amendment abolishing slavery and the 14th Amendment granting citizenship and equal protection under the law, laid the foundation for broader societal and economic changes. Additionally, the federal government implemented policies to stimulate economic growth, including infrastructure investments, subsidies for industrial development, and land grants for railroad construction. Overall, the economic reconstruction of the North was characterized by rapid industrialization, shifts in labor dynamics, and legislative reforms aimed at promoting economic growth and social justice. These efforts contributed to the North's emergence as an industrial powerhouse and paved the way for the economic prosperity of the post-war era. Economic Reconstruction in the South The economic reconstruction of the Southern states following the Civil War was fraught with numerous challenges, reflecting the devastation wrought by the conflict and the dismantling of the plantation economy. One of the primary challenges faced by the South was the severe disruption of its economic infrastructure, including transportation networks, 17 Razaghian, Rose. "Financing the Civil War: The Confederacy's Financial Strategy." Working Papers - Yale School of Management's International Center for Finance, 2004, Preceding p1- 45. 47p, DOI: 10.1257/aer.20131483.

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10 agricultural production, and financial systems 18 . The war had left many plantations in ruins, leading to widespread poverty and unemployment among formerly enslaved individuals and poor whites. In response to these challenges, Southern states embarked on various efforts aimed at rebuilding their economies. These attempts at rebuilding 19 were hindered by a lack of capital, labor shortages, and the absence of a diversified economic base. Reconstruction governments sought to attract investment and promote economic development through measures such as infrastructure projects, land redistribution, and the establishment of educational institutions. However, these efforts were often undermined by political instability, resistance from former Confederates, and the withdrawal of federal support. One pivotal change during the economic revitalization of the South was the rise of sharecropping as a predominant agricultural system 20 . Following the collapse of the plantation economy and the liberation of enslaved individuals, landowners resorted to sharecropping as a strategy to retain authority over agricultural operations while mitigating their financial risks. Sharecropping arrangements typically entailed tenants cultivating land owned by others in return for a portion of the harvested crops. Initially portrayed as a pathway to economic independence for emancipated individuals, sharecropping swiftly evolved into a symbol of indebtedness and exploitation, ensnaring numerous tenants in cycles of impoverishment and reliance. The transition to sharecropping reflected broader social and economic transformations occurring in the South during this period. It represented an attempt to adapt to the new realities of post-war agriculture while preserving elements of the antebellum social order. 18 Lebergott, Stanley. “The South Lost: Commercial Purpose in the Confederacy, 1861- 1865.” Journal of American History 70, no. 1 (June 1983): 58–74. doi:10.2307/1890521. 19 Lebergott, Stanley. “The South Lost: Commercial Purpose in the Confederacy, 1861- 1865.” Journal of American History 70, no. 1 (June 1983): 58–74. doi:10.2307/1890521. 20 Lebergott, Stanley. “The South Lost: Commercial Purpose in the Confederacy, 1861- 1865.” Journal of American History 70, no. 1 (June 1983): 58–74. doi:10.2307/1890521.

11 However, sharecropping ultimately perpetuated inequalities and hindered the economic advancement of African Americans and poor whites. In conclusion, the economic reconstruction of the South following the Civil War was characterized by a multitude of challenges and complex socioeconomic dynamics. While efforts were made to rebuild the region's economy and society, including the emergence of sharecropping as a dominant agricultural system, persistent obstacles hindered progress and perpetuated inequalities. The legacy of these efforts continues to shape the economic landscape of the Southern states to this day. Comparative Analysis The comparative analysis of the economic recovery between the North and South following the Civil War reveals significant disparities in pace, socioeconomic outcomes, and long-term implications. In terms of economic recovery pace, the North experienced a more rapid and robust reconstruction compared to the South. The industrialized Northern states benefited from wartime production and government investments, which spurred post-war industrial expansion 21 . Moreover, the Northern economy was less reliant on agriculture and slavery, allowing for greater diversification and resilience in the face of economic challenges. As a result, Northern states were able to rebound quickly from the war's economic disruptions and capitalize on emerging opportunities in industry and commerce. In contrast, the South faced formidable obstacles to economic recovery, including the destruction of infrastructure, widespread poverty, and the collapse of the plantation economy 21 Razaghian, Rose. "Financing the Civil War: The Confederacy's Financial Strategy." Working Papers - Yale School of Management's International Center for Finance, 2004, Preceding p1- 45. 47p, DOI: 10.1257/aer.20131483.

12 22 . The region's heavy dependence on agriculture, coupled with the loss of enslaved labor, hindered efforts to rebuild the economy and led to prolonged economic stagnation. Despite attempts at reconstruction by Southern governments and the emergence of sharecropping as a dominant agricultural system, the South lagged behind the North in terms of economic development and prosperity. Socioeconomic disparities between the North and South also persisted in the aftermath of the Civil War. While the North experienced economic growth and rising living standards, the South grappled with entrenched poverty, racial segregation, and social upheaval. The legacy of slavery and segregation continued to shape Southern society, contributing to disparities in wealth, education, and political power 23 . Moreover, the long-term economic implications of the Civil War were profound and far-reaching. In the North, the war accelerated industrialization and urbanization, laying the foundation for the nation's emergence as a global economic powerhouse. In contrast, the South's agrarian economy remained relatively stagnant, hampered by factors such as sharecropping, racial discrimination, and political instability. These disparities contributed to regional tensions and economic inequalities that persisted well into the 20th century. Overall, the comparative analysis highlights the divergent paths of economic development taken by the North and South in the aftermath of the Civil War. While the North 22 Lebergott, Stanley. “The South Lost: Commercial Purpose in the Confederacy, 1861- 1865.” Journal of American History 70, no. 1 (June 1983): 58–74. doi:10.2307/1890521. 23 Paul David Escott. Paying Freedom’s Price : A History of African Americans in the Civil War. The African American History Series. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2016. https://search-ebscohost-com.lopes.idm.oclc.org/login.aspx? direct=true&db=edsebk&AN=1361655&site=eds-live&scope=site.

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13 experienced rapid industrialization and economic growth, the South struggled to overcome the legacy of slavery and rebuild its shattered economy. The socioeconomic disparities between the two regions underscored the enduring impact of the Civil War on American society and economy. Critique of Sources The critique of sources pertaining to the economic impact of the Civil War involves evaluating both primary and secondary sources, assessing their reliability, and identifying any potential bias or limitations. Primary sources, such as government records, diaries, and letters from the Civil War era, offer firsthand accounts and valuable insights into the period's economic conditions and events. These sources provided direct access to historical data and perspectives, allowing for a deeper understanding of the subject matter. For example, documents like government reports on wartime production and trade statistics provide quantitative data that can be analyzed to assess the economic impact of the war 24 . Similarly, personal accounts from soldiers, civilians, and government officials offer qualitative insights into the lived experiences of individuals during this tumultuous period. However, primary sources also have inherent limitations. They may be biased or selective in nature, reflecting the perspectives and interests of the individuals or institutions that created them. Moreover, primary sources may be subject to errors, omissions, or misinterpretations, particularly if they were written under duress or with specific propaganda objectives in mind. Researchers must critically evaluate primary sources, corroborating 24 Razaghian, Rose. "Financing the Civil War: The Confederacy's Financial Strategy." Working Papers - Yale School of Management's International Center for Finance, 2004, Preceding p1- 45. 47p, DOI: 10.1257/aer.20131483.

14 information across multiple documents and considering the context in which they were produced. In contrast, secondary sources, such as scholarly articles, books, and academic papers, offer interpretations and analyses of primary source material. These sources synthesize existing research, provide historical context, and offer scholarly perspectives on the economic impact of the Civil War. Secondary sources often undergo peer review, ensuring a degree of quality and rigor in their analysis 25 . Additionally, secondary sources benefit from hindsight and access to a broader range of historical evidence, allowing researchers to construct more comprehensive narratives of the past. However, secondary sources are not immune to bias or limitations. Authors may interpret historical evidence through the lens of their own perspectives, ideologies, or research agendas, leading to potential biases in their analysis. Moreover, secondary sources may be influenced by prevailing historiographical trends or theoretical frameworks, shaping the author's interpretation of the evidence. Researchers must critically evaluate secondary sources, considering the author's qualifications, methodology, and potential biases. In evaluating sources on the economic impact of the Civil War, it is essential to consider the biases and limitations inherent in both primary and secondary sources. Researchers should seek out multiple perspectives and corroborating evidence, critically assessing the reliability and credibility of the sources used. By engaging in a thorough critique of sources, researchers can construct more nuanced and accurate interpretations of historical events and their economic consequences. Conclusion 25 Lebergott, Stanley. “The South Lost: Commercial Purpose in the Confederacy, 1861- 1865.” Journal of American History 70, no. 1 (June 1983): 58–74. doi:10.2307/1890521.

15 In conclusion, the economic impact of the Civil War on both the North and the South was profound and far-reaching, shaping the trajectory of American history for decades to come. The war disrupted established economic structures, leading to significant challenges and transformations in both regions. The North, with its industrialized economy, experienced rapid post-war industrial expansion. The demand for goods and services during the war had spurred innovation and investment in manufacturing, laying the groundwork for sustained economic growth in the years that followed. Labor shifts and wage policies adapted to the changing economic landscape, as the demand for skilled labor increased and workers organized to advocate for better wages and working conditions. Legislative changes, including the passage of laws promoting infrastructure development and economic modernization, further facilitated the North's economic reconstruction. In contrast, the South faced significant challenges in rebuilding its economy after the devastation of war. The region's reliance on agriculture and slavery had left it ill-equipped to compete in a rapidly industrializing world. Attempts at rebuilding were hindered by factors such as the destruction of infrastructure, labor shortages, and the collapse of the plantation economy. Sharecropping emerged as a dominant economic system, perpetuating cycles of poverty and dependence among formerly enslaved people and poor white farmers. A comparative analysis of the North and South reveals disparities in economic recovery pace and long-term implications. While the North experienced more rapid industrialization and economic growth in the aftermath of the war, the South lagged behind, struggling to overcome the legacy of slavery and agricultural dependence. Socioeconomic disparities between the regions persisted, contributing to ongoing tensions and divisions within American society.

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16 The implications of this research extend beyond the economic realm, highlighting the social and political dimensions of post-war reconstruction. The Civil War and its aftermath laid bare deep-seated divisions within American society, particularly around issues of race, labor, and economic opportunity. The legacies of slavery and Reconstruction continue to shape contemporary debates and policies, underscoring the enduring significance of this period in American history. Moving forward, further study is needed to deepen our understanding of the economic, social, and political dynamics of the Civil War era and its aftermath. Future research could explore topics such as the role of gender and class in shaping post-war economic reconstruction, the impact of Reconstruction policies on racial inequality, and the long-term implications of regional economic disparities. By engaging with these questions, scholars can continue to illuminate the complex legacy of the Civil War and its ongoing relevance to contemporary American society.

17 Bibliography Beckert, Sven. “Emancipation and Empire: Reconstructing the Worldwide Web of Cotton Production in the Age of the American Civil War.” The American Historical Review 109, no. 5 (December 1, 2004): 1405–38. doi:10.1086/530931. Calomiris, Charles W., and Jonathan Pritchett. "Betting on Secession: Quantifying Political Events Surrounding Slavery and the Civil War†." American Economic Review; Jan2016, Vol. 106 Issue 1, p1-23, 23p, 5 Charts, 4 Graphs, DOI: 10.1257/aer.20131483. Caltagirone, J., A. Dupont, M. Afanetti, E. Gondon, and D. Dupont. “Régression Psychomotrice Par Carence En Vitamine B12.” Archives de Pédiatrie 23, no. 12 (December 2016): 1270–1272. Cook, Robert J. Civil War Senator . LSU Press, 2011. Delfino, Susanna, Michele Gillespie, and Louis M. Kyriakoudes. Southern Society and Its Transformations, 1790-1860. Columbia: University of Missouri, 2011. Forman, Johanna Mendelson, and Merriam Mashatt. Employment Generation and Economic Development in Stabilization and Reconstruction Operations [Electronic Resource] / Johanna Mendelson-Forman and Merriam Mashatt. Stabilization and Reconstruction Series: No. 6. Washington, DC : U.S. Institute of Peace, 2007, 2007. https://search-ebscohost- com.lopes.idm.oclc.org/login.aspx? direct=true&db=edsgpr&AN=edsgpr.000605910&site=eds-live&scope=site. Hutchinson, William K., and Robert A. Margo. “The Impact of the Civil War on Capital Intensity and Labor Productivity in Southern Manufacturing.” Explorations in Economic History 43, no. 4 (October 2006): 689–704. Industrialization and the American Civil War. GlobalData Ltd, 2017. https://search-ebscohost- com.lopes.idm.oclc.org/login.aspx? direct=true&db=edsgvr&AN=edsgcl.7265900012&site=eds-live&scope=site. Lebergott, Stanley. “The South Lost: Commercial Purpose in the Confederacy, 1861-1865.” Journal of American History 70, no. 1 (June 1983): 58–74. doi:10.2307/1890521.

18 Mockaitis, Thomas R. Conventional and Unconventional War . Bloomsbury Publishing USA, 2017. Oliver, Henry, Willard Thorp, and Wesley C. Mitchell. American Economic Review . Nashville, Tm: American Economic Association, 2001. Paul David Escott. Paying Freedom’s Price : A History of African Americans in the Civil War. The African American History Series. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2016. https://search-ebscohost-com.lopes.idm.oclc.org/login.aspx? direct=true&db=edsebk&AN=1361655&site=eds-live&scope=site. Razaghian, Rose. "Financing the Civil War: The Confederacy's Financial Strategy." Working Papers - Yale School of Management's International Center for Finance, 2004, Preceding p1-45. 47p, DOI: 10.1257/aer.20131483. Surdam, David G. “King Cotton: Monarch or Pretender? The State of the Market for Raw Cotton on the Eve of the American Civil War.” The Economic History Review 51, no. 1 (1998): 113– 132. Accessed March 27, 2023. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2599694. Susanna Delfino, Michele Gillespie, and Louis M. Kyriakoudes. Southern Society and Its Transformations, 1790-1860. New Currents in the History of Southern Economy and Society Series. Columbia: University of Missouri, 2011. https://search-ebscohost- com.lopes.idm.oclc.org/login.aspx?direct=true&db=edsebk&AN=438793&site=eds- live&scope=site. The James Agee Films Project. Long Shadows: The Legacy of the American Civil War. Films On Demand, 1994. https://search-ebscohost-com.lopes.idm.oclc.org/login.aspx? direct=true&db=edsfod&AN=edsfod.43330&site=eds-live&scope=site. Zallen, Jeremy. “Unredeemed Land: An Environmental History of Civil War and Emancipation in the Cotton South.” Business History Review 93, no. 4 (December 22, 2019): 837. https://search-ebscohost-com.lopes.idm.oclc.org/login.aspx? direct=true&db=edsinc&AN=edsinc.A616968207&site=eds-live&scope=site.

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