Ullah_EDUC5012_Assess 2

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Unit Code: EDUC5012 Unit Name: Theories of Development and Learning Uni Term 1, 2022, Bentley Campus FO [1] Assessment 2 Case study three: Secondary School . Student Name: M Obayed Ullah Unit Coordinator: Dr Jia White Due: May 18, 2021 Word Count: 2581

Case study three: Secondary School 1. Behavioural Approach to Learning. Behaviourists view learning as a "cause and effect" process where external factors are responsible for resulting in a response. Behaviourists believe that this response will become a learnt behaviour or habit over time. The strategy of rewarding and punishment is a classical behavioural approach to manage student behaviours in the classroom and encourage the students' learning. Moreover, reinforcement is the basis of achieving a desired goal or behaviour in a classroom environment (Duchesne et al., 2021). Poor Social Skills and Behaviourism. Considering the scenario that students are from diverse cultures, there could be different reasons for having poor social skills, such as lack of knowledge, lack of consistency despite knowledge and fluency deficits. For example, students from different cultures may consider eye contact during communication inappropriate. If there is no such clear instruction or expectation from the classroom teacher, then this will result in poor social skills due to a lack of knowledge or clear instructions (McMullen & Madelaine, 2014). Similar kinds of inappropriate social behaviours students may practice in their home environment. For example, a student never practices asking permission to borrow something at home because the parents never establish this expectation. As introduced by Pavlov and further developed by Watson (Duchesne et al., 2021), the lack of classical conditioning between expected social behaviours and the classroom environment will result in poor social skills among the students. For example, if the expectation was set that with the first bell, students will pack up their belonging and line up during the second

bell, and the classroom teacher establishes this practice, then students may demonstrate appropriate social behaviours or skills. Moreover, students may fail to perform consistently on social skills although they have the required knowledge. For example, although a student raises their hand most of the time to ask a question, he sometimes blurts out a comment without raising his hand. This failure is because the strategy of positive reinforcement and punishment is not established there in the classroom. Poor social skills may also result from lacking fluency; for example, a student knows the response if he encounters bullying behaviour, but the response might not be strong enough to succeed. From a behaviourist perspective, this poor social skill may result because the classroom teacher, parent, or caregiver may not emphasise mastering the skills by continuous reinforcement (Duchesne et al., 2021) . In addition, Behaviourist believes that all intentional behaviours are controlled by antecedent and consequence. A teacher might not be sure about unexpected behaviour, and contextual factors as the teacher did not implement the A-B-C (antecedent-behaviour-consequence) to find the cause of the behaviour and its consequence (Duchesne et al., 2021). For example, anxiety or depression may interfere in demonstrating appropriate conflict resolution skills even though the skills have been learnt and practised before. As a result, overall poor social skills are the outcome in the classroom. Classroom Intervention and Behaviourism. The social skills of the secondary student could be shaped by applying positive reinforcement and punishment, which Skinner defined as operant conditioning (Duchesne et al., 2021). Behaviourists apply the Applied Behaviour Analysis (ABA) to change social behaviour in the

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classroom or playground (Alberto & Troutman, 2016) based on the principle of operant conditioning. More general applications of the principle of ABA in classroom management are known as Direct Instruct and Positive Behaviour Support (PBS). PBS has been used for a wide range of behavioural support, such as bullying and aggressive behaviours (Dunlap et al., 2010). However, the implementation of operant conditioning and the principle of ABA in the classroom depend on observation and identification of the behaviour to address (using A-B-C observational recording), developing and implementing strategies with appropriate reinforcement to prevent inappropriate behaviour, maintaining the appropriate behaviour, and monitoring and measuring the intervention (Duchesne et al., 2021). School-wide PBS establish a foundation of a safe school environment, whereas class- wide PBS deal with overall classroom functioning and specialist need of individuals with different difficulties (Scott et al., 2007). In the PBS framework, the first step is to actively predict the failure. For example, a student from a diverse background may fail to understand the appropriate way of communication in the classroom. To address this social problem, the teacher needs to predict and provide clear instruction for the student (Scott et al., 2007). In such a situation, clear instruction and breaking down the task in parts considering the context may result in better social behaviours. After predicting and identifying the probable problems, the preventive measures in PBS include routine, rules, and physical arrangements tailored to prevent problems during a specific identified context. For example, a student might be unruly at the beginning of the day. The teacher needs to establish more specific rules for coming into class, keeping the bag in the locker and checking in which the student did not practice in the home environment. Overall, a classroom teacher should establish a clear expectation which could be supported by

clear visual cues through posters or pictures and utilising inclusive language so that students understand what behaviours are expected in the classroom. Once the rules, routines, and exceptions are established, a classroom teacher needs to implement these with modelling, consistency and reinforcements (Scott et al., 2007) . For example, modelling how to borrow a pencil will encourage students to demonstrate the behaviour and reinforce their practice over time. During the implementation of the PBS strategies, behaviour specific praise is a way of positive reinforcement to teach the right social behaviour, particularly for students with individual needs. Teachers should actively look for behaviour that they can praise more frequently, particularly for the student with concerning behaviour to achieve the right behaviour. Moreover, there should be multiple opportunities so that students can receive positive acknowledgement for appropriate behaviour. A classroom teacher and support staff may play a role in "catching" a student with "good" and formally acknowledge it by providing a stamp or award (Conroy et al., 2009) . 2. Constructivism Approach to Learning. Constructivism is based on the idea that meaning is constructed by learners. Constructivists believe that learners are both active physically and mentally in constructing knowledge and, therefore, capable of self-regulating their learning process (Duchesne et al., 2021). Moreover, some forms of constructivism recognise that the socio-cultural context where the knowledge construction took place is a great source of invaluable resources, support and direction (O'Donnell, 2012). In addition, an important philosophy of constructivism is that learning is

supported by social interaction with peers and adults, and learners are able to link new information from current experiences to previous knowledge while they interact with their environment (Duchesne et al., 2021). Poor Social Skills and Constructivism. Given the scenario of a classroom that is full of students from diverse cultures, abilities, and backgrounds, it is expected that there will be differences in understanding of social skills among students. The social skills that a child acquires can be determined by the culture and context they are brought up. Moreover, the culture of a country and the school structure provide certain "guidelines" for the upbringing of the child (Jay, 2010). According to Constructivists, the difference in their own meaning and knowledge across the learner and context is due to their social and cultural context (Duchesne et al., 2021). For example, a student from a particular cultural background may engage in conversation with a student of the opposite sex without eye contact, as it is believed that direct eye contact is a form of disrespect. In fact, such cultural diversity results in poor social interactions. According to the constructivist view (Duchesne et al., 2021), a student may have prior knowledge of engaging in conversation which is constructed in a particular social context. But the student may not have the opportunity to link the new classroom experience of conversation to the previous experiences. Further, experience and attitudes developed from previous school environments may result in poor social skills among the students. For example, students in a school with sex segregation develop certain behavioural patterns among boys and girls. Girls are more inclined to play in small groups and participle in calm and fewer activities. But the boys tend to join larger groups and are found to be more aggressive and rough (Thorne, 1986). As learners construct meaning from their environment,

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male students from such backgrounds continued to apply such prior experience, allowing them to be aggressive in school and resulting in poor social behaviour. Family background and parent interactions may result in poor social interactions as well, as students bring knowledge from family and community interactions. For example, students initially learn irritable exchanges from parents, which later translate into peer interactions in the school (Patterson, 1986). Classroom Interventions and Constructivism. Piaget, Vygotsky, and other contemporary cognitive development theorists acknowledge the significance of interactions with peers and diverse others in cognitive development (Duchesne et al., 2021). To improve social skills and encourage appropriate interaction, a classroom teacher should allow students to work together, as social constructivists believe that knowledge is constructed from the continual interactions between individuals and the surrounding environment (O'Donnell, 2012). By working together, they not just bring their own knowledge but are also influenced and shaped by the environment (Duchesne et al., 2021). Moreover, the learning process is reciprocal among the group members, which is often described as co-construction and sharing the knowledge to shape each other experience (Darling-Hammond et al., 2020). Cooperative learning, collaborative learning and peer-assisted learning may be applied to improve the social interaction among students. For example, students imitate other companions (modelling), practice the learnt social skills (behavioural trial), and get feedback immediately from group members in cooperative learning, which ultimately shape their behaviour for appropriate social interactions (León et al., 2015). The prior understanding of eye contact in conversation will be reshaped when a student participates in cooperative

learning such as Think-Pair-Share (also called turn and talk) through modelling, behavioural trial, and feedback. Moreover, a teacher can propose collaborative activities in the classroom through collaborative learning, where students will have the opportunity to learn autonomously by observing others (Simin, 2020). For example, students participating in a group discussion will be cooperative and active. In such a scenario, a student will observe others' conversational norms, tone and attitudes while they are participating in a conversation and how others accept differences of opinion with respect. Hopefully, a student with aggressive and rough attitude will autonomously redefine his/her earlier ways of conversation while observing the dynamics of group conversation. In addition, participation in a group discussion regarding family violence and facts may redefine the understanding of the boundary, type and nature of family violences. Student may bring a range of understanding of family violence as they are coming from a diverse family background which need to be addressed to have a common understanding of such issue. Group discussion and sharing ideas will build a new experience among student which ultimately result better social interactions. 3. Humanist Approach to Learning. Humanism emphasises the essential goodness of human beings and the need for every individual to achieve self-actualisation or self-fulfilment (Duchesne et al., 2021), which is based on Maslaw's theory of motivation and the hierarchy of needs as well as Rogers' client- centred therapy and concept of "freedom to learn" (Duchesne et al., 2021). Maslaw believes that human beings are good in nature and if their basic needs are fulfilled and they are assured of safety, love, and belonging, they can cope with some levels of frustrations and

disappointments (Duchesne et al., 2021). Moreover, in a classroom environment, Rogers believes that the teacher's goal should be to mature students through non-directive teaching, non-directive relationship and providing "freedom to learn" rather than controlling their learning (Duchesne et al., 2021). The classroom teacher should have a positive view of children, be an active listener, and create a climate of trust to support learners' social, emotional, and cognitive development (Duchesne et al., 2021). Poor Social Skills and Humanism. As mentioned in the case study, students from different cultural diversity, abilities and backgrounds in a classroom may encounter difficulties in their social interactions. This is because students may not feel a sense of belonging through respect, security, safety, freedom and a supportive environment. A respectful interaction and a positive environment are necessary to develop interpersonal skills (Leach, 2012). For example, students will be reluctant to participate in a conversation to share ideas if there is a sense of being disrespected for the ideas they share, which leads students to be isolated socially. According to the humanistic view, respect involves an unconditional acceptance of the student for who they are (Patterson, 1973). Poor understanding of people as rational and unique individuals deserving dignity and value may result in disrespect among students in the classroom, leading to poor interpersonal or social interactions among students. Moreover, humanistic philosophy believes that humans desire freedom of expression, freedom to control oneself and freedom to be different (Aloni, 2007). If there is no room for freedom of expression, no trusted relationship among the classroom members and students are not trusted to make a decision in their own environment; then there is a chance that

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students will demonstrate isolated and antisocial behaviour with disobedience and anxiety (Shwalb et al., 2010). In addition, a growing body of evidence shows that a positive teacher-student relationship is an important element in producing desired social and academic achievements among students (den Brok et al., 2010; Jennings & Greenberg, 2009). An inadequate relationship with the teacher may lead to an aversion toward school and a feeling of disengagement, impacting students' social behaviours in the classroom (Poulou, 2015). Classroom Interventions and Humanism. A humanist teacher is expected to be open and honest with the student to build an authentic humanistic relationship. The classroom teacher should strive to value students' ideas, culture, and language and nurture the emerging identity and self-esteem of the students (Duchesne et al., 2021). Students should be encouraged to learn using their inner motivation and resources in order to become fully functional individuals (Rogers, 1969). Cooperative learning is one of the humanistic learning approaches which enable students to gain a sense of belonging and exercise control over their own learning, especially by working with and helping others (Glasser, 1981). It is distinguished from other forms of group learning by using contingent rewards for groups by setting up a sharing incentive system (Duchesne et al., 2021). This learning approach can help students in developing conflict resolution and relationship skills, respect, and tolerance (Johnson & Johnson, 2014). Moreover, through cooperative learning, a teacher can promote positive interactions and improve students' social skills such as communication, leadership, decision making, building trust, listening, and providing positive feedback (Johnson & Johnson, 2017). Encouraging students to draw the skill charts with examples (such as Table 7.1, p.300, (Duchesne et al.,

2021)) and displaying the chart for the reminder is one way to help students understand and evaluate their social skills during group activities. Jigsaw, a form of cooperative learning in which each group member takes responsibility for a component of one task, could improve peer relationships among students from different ethnic groups and students with disabilities and reduce prejudice (Roseth et al., 2008). For example, a classroom teacher can utilise Jigsaw strategy to learn about the diversity of cultures present in the classroom. Every student will take part to explain their culture as part of the whole lesson. In this way they will practice several social skills together with the building of a sense of belonging, trust and respect. References Alberto, P. A., & Troutman, A. C. (2016). Applied Behavior Analysis for Teachers Interactive Ninth Edition . Pearson Education. https://books.google.com.au/books? id=yKp5CwAAQBAJ Aloni, N. (2007). Enhancing Humanity: The Philosophical Foundations of Humanistic Education . Springer Netherlands. https://books.google.com.au/books? id=UJjtT0PUlawC Conroy, M. A., Sutherland, K. S., Snyder, A., Al-Hendawi, M., & Vo, A. (2009). Creating a Positive Classroom Atmosphere: Teachers' Use of Effective Praise and Feedback. Beyond Behavior , 18 (2), 9. Darling-Hammond, L., Flook, L., Cook-Harvey, C., Barron, B., & Osher, D. (2020). Implications for educational practice of the science of learning and development. Applied Developmental Science , 24 (2), 97-140. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888691.2018.1537791

den Brok, P., van Tartwijk, J., Wubbels, T., & Veldman, I. (2010). The differential effect of the teacher-student interpersonal relationship on student outcomes for students with different ethnic backgrounds. Br J Educ Psychol , 80 (Pt 2), 199-221. https://doi.org/10.1348/000709909x465632 Duchesne, S., McMaugh, A., & Mackenzie, E. (2021). Educational Psychology for Learning and Teaching 7e . Cengage Learning Australia. https://books.google.com.au/books? id=UKFREAAAQBAJ Dunlap, G., Carr, E. G., Homer, R. H., Robert L. Koegel, R. L., & Wayne Sailor, W. (2010). A Descriptive, Multiyear Examination of Positive Behavior Support. Behavioral Disorders , 34 (4), 21. Glasser, W. (1981). Stations of the Mind: New Directions for Reality Therapy . Harper & Row. https://books.google.com.au/books?id=rvKJbwlVzr8C Jay, A. (2010). Cultural Differences: Their Effect on Social Skill Development. Jennings, P. A., & Greenberg, M. T. (2009). The Prosocial Classroom: Teacher Social and Emotional Competence in Relation to Student and Classroom Outcomes. Review of Educational Research , 79 (1), 491-525. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654308325693 Johnson, D., & Johnson, R. (2014). Cooperative Learning in 21st Century. Anales de Psicología , 30 , 841-851. https://doi.org/10.6018/analesps.30.3.201241 Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (2017). The use of cooperative procedures in teacher education and professional development. Journal of Education for Teaching , 43 (3), 284-295. https://doi.org/10.1080/02607476.2017.1328023 Leach, N. (2012). Humanistic School Culture and Social 21st Century Skills Graduate School of The Ohio State University]. León, B., Felipe, E., Mendo, S., & Iglesias, D. (2015). Social skills in cooperative learning teams in the University context. Psicol. Conductual , 23 , 191-214.

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McMullen, F., & Madelaine, A. (2014). Why is there so much resistance to Direct Instruction? Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties , 19 (2), 137-151. https://doi.org/10.1080/19404158.2014.962065 O'Donnell, A. M. (2012). Constructivism. In K. R. Harris, S. Graham, T. Urdan, C. B. McCormick, G. M. Sinatra, & J. Sweller (Eds.), APA educational psychology handbook, Vol. 1. Theories, constructs, and critical issues . American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/13273-003 Patterson, C. H. (1973). Humanistic Education . Prentice-Hall. https://books.google.com.au/books?id=eE2jpwAACAAJ Patterson, G. R. (1986). Performance models for antisocial boys. American Psychologist , 41 (4), 13. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.41.4.432 Poulou, M. (2015). Teacher-Student Relationships, Social and Emotional Skills, and Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties. International Journal of Educational Psychology , 4 (1), 84-108. https://doi.org/10.4471/ijep.2015.04 Rogers, C. R. (1969). Freedom to Learn . https://books.google.com.au/books? id=HdVuznk5IyMC Roseth, C. J., Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (2008). Promoting early adolescents' achievement and peer relationships: the effects of cooperative, competitive, and individualistic goal structures. Psychol Bull , 134 (2), 223-246. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.134.2.223 Scott, T., Park, K., Swain-Bradway, J., & Landers, E. (2007). Positive Behavior Support in the Classroom: Facilitating Behaviorally Inclusive Learning Environments. International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy , 3 . https://doi.org/10.1037/h0100800

Shwalb, D. W., Nakazawa, J., Yamamoto, T., & Hyun, J. H. (2010). Fathering in Japan, China, and Korea: Changing contexts, images, and roles. The role of the father in child development , 341-387. Simin, G. (2020). Collaborative Learning: A Key to Enhance Students' Social Interaction Skills. Malaysian Online Journal of Educational Sciences , 8 (4), 13. Thorne, B. (1986). Girls and Boys Together But Mostly Apart: Gender Arrangements in Elementary Schools. In W. W. Hartup & Z. Rubin (Eds.), Relationships and development .

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