In a study of factors thought to be responsible for the adverse effects of smoking on human reproduction, cadmium level determinations (nanograms per gram) were made on placenta tissue of a sample of 14 mothers who were smokers and an independent random sample of 18 nonsmoking mothers. The results were as follows: Nonsmokers: 10.0.8.4. 12.8, 25.0, 11.8.9.8. 12.5, 15.4.23.5, 9.4. 25.1, 19.5. 25.5.9.8. 7.5, 11.8, 12.2, 15.0 Smokers: 30.0, 30.1, 15.0, 24.1, 30.5, 17.8, 16.8, 14.8, 13.4, 28.5, 17.5, 14.4, 12.5, 20.4 Does it appear likely that the mean cadmium level is higher among smokers than nonsmokers? Why do you reach this conclusion?

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A:

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Types of Bias

Statistics is the study of data collection, organization, analysis, interpretation, and presentation. Statistical bias is a characteristic of a statistical technique or its findings in which the expected value deviates from the actual root quantitative parameter being estimated. According to the actual definition of bias, it refers to the tendency of a statistic to overestimate or underestimate a parameter.