Race_and_Inequality

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Running Head: DOES RACE STRUCTURE INEQUALITY 1 Does Race Structure Inequality Name Institutional Affiliation

DOES RACE STRUCTURE INEQUALITY 2 Does Race Structure Inequality? If race structures inequality, as Audrey Smedley, Michael Omi, and Howard Winant argue, then from the colonial period to the turn of the 20 th century, did the United States either resolve or reaffirm what Edmund Morgan called the American Paradox vis-à-vis not only African Americans but also Native Americans and other nonwhites? Introduction Since the colonial period to the turn of the 20 th century, the United States failed to resolve Edmund Morgan’s paradox; instead, they accepted race as fixed and acceptable, which reaffirmed the American Paradox. Contrary to the American constitution that all men are created equal and that they are endowed with certain unalienable Rights, the same constitution allowed for slavery and victimization of the underprivileged to uphold white supremacy (Fredrickson, “White Supremacy,” p. 143). The justification of such behavior was based on the generally assumed notion that all people have different races, each of which is different, unique, and unequal by nature and that, such differences are irreversible and fixed (Smedley, “Race and intelligence,” p. 164). Additionally, it is believed that races are morally, physically, and intellectually unequal in terms of their capabilities and potentialities – thus, they must be ranked hierarchically whereby white Europeans take the topmost position and Black Africans the bottom position (Smedley, “Race and intelligence,” p. 163). Such assumptions have established a generally accepted foundation to reaffirm Morgan’s racial based American Paradox. Race in the United States In the United States, race is a naturally occurring concept that justifies inequality on the basis that it is fixed and inherited. In the United States, race is an accepted facet of life; it is objective, concrete, and fixed. Although Omi & Winan, “Racial Formation,” (p. 124) argue that

DOES RACE STRUCTURE INEQUALITY 3 race should be interpreted as an “unstable and decentered complex of social meanings” that are transformed by political struggles constantly, analysis of slavery in Virginia and the life of African Americans show that race is considered a fixed and naturally occurring facet of life. Encouraged by Herbert’s concept of Social Darwinism (Smedley, “Race and intelligence,” p. 161) and Morton’s scientific research (Smedley, “Race and intelligence,” p. 160), race has since been adopted as a useful mechanism to determine those who should be allowed to enjoy access to power, wealth, respect, and privileges, and those who should not. This concept has led to the growth of a generally accepted worldview where people are not ranked on the basis of their physical characteristics but also, their capacity of civilization and presumed behavior. For instance, racial classification uses African-American inferior qualities and behavior to justify their lower position, and thus, justifies incarceration. American Paradox American history is founded on contradictory beliefs and system which involves rooting for freedom and equality while propagating slavery and unequal treatment of people based on their ethnic backgrounds. For instance, in fostering the Englishmen’s rights, Americans destroyed African rights through slavery and mass incarceration. The central paradox of American history was best evidenced between the 17 th and 19 th century, a period when America witnessed the rise of slavery, liberty, equality, and inequality. The rise of such inequalities was encouraged by America’s founding fathers such as George Washington and Thomas Jefferson who championed for liberty, justice, and freedom, while positioning a foundation for slavery and inequality. Although the American constitution was laid on the understanding that all human beings are born with natural rights, the evident proliferation of slave code in various states stood as an outright depiction of American paradox. In 1661, a law was passed in Virginia legalizing race-

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DOES RACE STRUCTURE INEQUALITY 4 based slavery which allowed every free person the right to own slaves. Although native Americans and Europeans were initially used as servants, they were not treated as slaves as they enjoyed their inalienable rights. However, Negroes, who were perceived as inferior to the European servants were purchased as property without rights and freedom (Morgan, “American Slavery American Freedom,” p. 336). Lack of labor to service extensive tracts of tobacco and sugarcane plantations changed the focus of farmers to the purchase of readily available slaves (Morgan, “American Slavery American Freedom,” p. 297). At first, owning slaves was an expensive venture that was reserved for the affluent farmers. To eliminate this gap, the government exempted Dutch ships that were shipping Negroes from taxation making the sale and ownership of slaves one of the most money-spinning ventures in the area as the ownership of slaves helped tobacco and sugarcane farmers to increase productivity and profitability. The Englishman’s rights are further fostered at the expense of the Negroes in that the law grants the owner absolute powers over the slave. While the constitution identifies life as an inalienable right, it empowers the Englishman’s life above others. As Morgan explains, upon purchase, the slave’s owner was accorded the outright power and right to turn the slave’s “every waking moment” into a profitable project (Morgan, “American Slavery American Freedom,” p. 316). In addition to alienation of powers, the slaves were subjected to extreme punishment which included whipping, branding, burning, and mutilation, among others. Additionally, masters did not hesitate to put women and their children to work in their fields as the masters had the right to take ownership of the slave’s children. In addition to Virginia, Mississippi among others states owned a slave code that spelled out a set of laws that could help to govern slavery in the area. The purchase of slaves, forced labor, and the public protection of masters was an ingredient of

DOES RACE STRUCTURE INEQUALITY 5 racial inequality and an extension of the inherent superiority of the Englishman above the African man. Another approach that the United States adopted to reaffirm Morgan’s concept of American Paradox was through the justification of racial hierarchy as acceptable and natural. As explained by Smedley, “Race and intelligence,” p. 160), Europeans adopted scientific theories to justify that whites and Africans are different species who deserve to be treated differently. As explained by Smedley, “Race and intelligence,” p. 155- p. 168), such theories were justified by the argument on intelligence. Research showed that different races had differing sense of intelligence which stated that Whites had a high IQ while Blacks had a lower IQ and were thus inferior. Inequality based on intelligence is further shown in Samuel Morton’s research where questions about the status of the Negro are raised. For instance, the question on whether the Negro is “human like other men” or different as to acquire a classification different from the species of man justifies the inherent inequality showcased towards Africans. According to Morton’ research, “Negroes has the smallest brains, those of Indians were larger, and whites had the largest brains of all” (Smedley, “Race and intelligence,” p. 159). The documentation of differences in brain size among various racial populations affirmed the concept of intellectual inequality among different races. Morton’s scientific work justified the slavery undertaking, which was at its height at the time when the research was conducted and published (Between 1840s to 1850s). Although the work was subjected to endless debates, Morton’s work left a legacy as it set a precedent for racial studies that proved Negro as an inferior being who had a separate order of being. It laid a foundation that fostered a contradictory perspective towards human rights and equality.

DOES RACE STRUCTURE INEQUALITY 6 In addition to a scientific approach, the American racial inequality was justified by Herbert Spenser’s argument that only the “fittest” would survive (Smedley, “Race and intelligence,” p. 161). According to Spenser, human beings, were in a continuous state of competition in which only the fittest survive. The fittest were not determined by body strength or immunity but rather, by their economic success. Best described as social Darwinism, this theory declared the financially deprived races such as Blacks unfit, while Whites who were financially capable were considered the most fit for survival. Even after the Reconstruction and Civil War, such economic and social realities barred the likelihood of an egalitarian system that could prevail in the country. The scientific arguments caused race to become a deep-rooted concept of structuring society. It was deeply entrenched in American consciousness as a justifiable aspect of life that is fixed and inherited, and that some people are more privileged than others. Conclusion To this end, it is debatable that the United States failed to resolve Edmund Morgan’s paradox; instead, they accepted race as fixed and acceptable, which reaffirmed the American paradox. The paradox was furthered by the prioritization of Englishman’s rights at the expense of the Black person’s rights. The propagation of slavery in Virginia and Mississippi, among other parts of the country showed a contradictory position to that held in the American constitution that all lives are subject to equal treatment. Such contradicting beliefs and actions put American history in a position that depicted it as a paradoxical nation that was guided by racial ideologies.

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