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2 Questions Question 1 The first topic that comes up when discussing Mexican American experiences in schools is the presence of exceptionalism. Bettie (2002) outlines it as somewhat similar to what white working-class girls have to go through, but all experiences seem to revolve around divergence created by ethnic diversity. The increasing role of mobility experiences also comes into play and establishes a powerful opposition that contributes to delinquency and hinders cultural exchange. College studies are exceptionally affected by such experiences because immigration places a burden on Mexican American students. It must be understood that middle-class cultural forms are often overlooked due to the amount of struggle that has to be persevered by Mexican American female students regardless of their abilities (Bettie, 2002). The correlation between poverty and one’s ethnic background was one of the fundamental factors pushing Mexican American students to engage in college education and escape unpleasant experiences communicated by their parents. Hence, social mobility could be either strengthened or disintegrated with the aid of educational and social policies that would be comprehensive enough to address cultural education and embrace various identities. On the other hand, there are findings presented by Riggs (2014) which revolve around the presence of a definite gap between wealthier and poorer students. In this case, social mobility can be deemed contingent on social adjustment and the comprehensive nature of the proposed educational program. If a student is not persistent enough, they may not get a chance to acquire enough support from teachers and administration to keep learning and contribute to the minimization of the gap between students from poor and successful backgrounds, respectively. The existing curricula turn college experiences into unwanted expenses that have to be covered if

3 a student expects to pass standardized tests successfully and apply for relevant financial aid (Riggs, 2014). College education can be described as ethnically driven in the case where there are no positive effects to all the policies and actions taken by college administration executives. Without adequate mentorship, minority students can be left out mistakenly, making it impossible for them to experience high-quality college education and contribute to greater graduation rates. Question 3 Disability and equality go hand in hand with discussions on ethnicity and race in education. Therefore, the findings presented by Farkas and Morgan (2018) are important because they make it safe to say that special education does not offer significant help to those struggling academically. The core factor contributing to the difference between regular and special education is the presence of minority students who tend to remain underserved and underrepresented on a larger scale due to financial and social inequities. The lack of extra assistance stems from problematic integration processes that cannot be reworked due to the absence of relevant advocacy efforts intended to help minority students advance (Farkas & Morgan, 2018). In other words, the problem revolves around the stigma of being concerned with minority issues when the long-standing bias hinders special education anyway. On the other hand, there are findings provided by Lewis (2015), who touched upon the issue of minority students receiving too little support to succeed. Suspensions and other disciplinary punishments are overall too prevalent across minority education, with many special education students being considered uncooperative and deserving to be barred and scolded. Regardless of behaviors displayed by minority representatives, students get isolated in an attempt to seclude them for an indefinite period to save teachers with insufficient experience from major failures. This strategy does not seem to be as effective as governmental assistance because such

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4 restraints – both physical and policy-related – affect educational outcomes in a negative manner (Lewis, 2015). There is much skepticism around non-punitive solutions because improved safety becomes central to educators looking forward to establishing a positive model for other schools with special education students. Hence, inequalities thrive on the diversity of students from socio-economically deficient regions, especially if there are many special education learners. Even though there are school districts willing to take action on the issue of ethno-racial inequalities pertaining to special education students, the overall state of affairs is questionable because there are no standardized solutions. Ultimately, the importance of solutions provided by the National Center for Learning Disabilities (2020) has to be discussed. The first reason why states and districts have to pay attention to the guidelines offered by the aforementioned institution is the possibility of developing relationships with families and establishing a two-way dialog to improve learning outcomes. For instance, more attention could be paid to the cultural and social backgrounds of special education students. On the other hand, districts could contribute to enhanced equity by collecting additional data on how the rights of special education students are preserved (National Center for Learning Disabilities, 2020). While tracking learners with disability status, the government would get a chance to reduce the grade of inequality experienced by minority students with disabilities. This way, ethnicity and race would not become as impactful while aiding educational institutions in terms of protecting the identities of minority students. Question 4 The fundamental issue affecting the socioeconomic status and college enrollment rates among minority students is the presence of negative attainment outcomes associated with a college education. Holland and DeLuca (2016) highlight the gap between completion rates and

5 the biggest challenges experienced by disadvantaged students, such as debt burdens and a complex information deficit. Many minority students remain unprepared for the upcoming education-related steps when graduating from high school. Findings provided by Holland and DeLuca (2016) are crucial in this regard because they showcase the lacking nature of the existing labor market. Therefore, employment outcomes are largely controlled by the relationship between the guidance exerted by teachers and informed decisions made by respective students. These points are also discussed in the article written by Jack (2019), who approached the issue of college education from the point of class-based and racial diversity. Minority students are often engaged in an algorithm where they contribute to the tensions between low-income learners and their counterparts coming from significantly more successful households. Considering Holland and DeLuca’s (2016) and Jack’s (2019) insights, it is vital to cover the ASAP program developed by the City University of New York (CUNY). Strumbos et al. (2018) discussed its benefits and limitations in order to see how minority students could benefit from engaging in much more diverse learning environments with remedial courses and necessary guidance. It was found that academic support could become one of the ways to close the gap between minority and non-minority students, where the ASAP program would serve as the bridge between learner capacity and career development opportunities. Overall, the biggest outcome of the ASAP program would be improved coordination across educational departments and less confusion among minority students looking forward to getting the best education they can.

6 References Bettie, J. (2002). Exceptions to the rule: Upwardly mobile white and Mexican American high school girls. Gender & Society , 16 (3), 403-422. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243202016003008 Farkas, G., & Morgan, P. L. (2018). Risk and race in measuring special education need. Contexts , 17 (4), 72-74. https://doi.org/10.1177/1536504218812876 Holland, M. M., & DeLuca, S. (2016). “Why wait years to become something?” Low-income African American youth and the costly career search in for-profit trade schools. Sociology of Education , 89 (4), 261-278. https://doi.org/10.1177/0038040716666607 Jack, A. A. (2019). I was a low-income college student. Classes weren’t the hard part. New York Times . https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/09/10/magazine/college- inequality.html Lewis, K. R. (2015). Why schools over-discipline children with disabilities. The Atlantic , 369- 380. Retrieved from https://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2015/07/school- discipline-children-disabilities/399563/ National Center for Learning Disabilities. (2020). Significant disproportionality in special education: The role of income. https://www.ncld.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/2020-NCLD-Disproportionality_- Low-Income-Students_FINAL.pdf Riggs, L. (2014). What it’s like to be the first person in your family to go to college. The Atlantic , 1-6. Retrieved from

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7 https://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2014/01/what-its-like-to-be-the-first- person-in-your-family-to-go-to-college/282999/ Strumbos, D., Linderman, D., & Hicks, C. C. (2018). Postsecondary pathways out of poverty: City university of New York Accelerated Study in Associate Programs and the case for national policy. RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences , 4 (3), 100-117. https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2018.4.3.06

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