U05A01

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Dec 6, 2023

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Literature Review Morgan E. Garrett School of Social and Behavioral Sciences, Capella University PSY-7711: Measurement and Research in ABA Professor Keisha Moeller August 13 th , 2023 1

Literature Review Template Complete the following after finding your four articles. Article 1 2

APA-formatted reference: Davis, T. N., Weston, R., Hodges, A., Uptegrove, L., Williams, K., & Schieltz, K. M. (2018). Functional Communication Training and Demand Fading Using Concurrent Schedules of Reinforcement. Journal of Behavioral Education, 27 (3), 343-357. https://doi- org.library.capella.edu/10.1007/s10864-017-9289-0 Dependent Variable The dependent variable presented in this study was aggression. This included hitting, kicking, pencil stabbing, biting, and eye gouging. Independent Variable The independent variable presented in this study was functional communication training (FCT) and demand fading. In this study FCT was used as a replacement behavior and was used to teach the participants to request all done, a break, or any other functionally equivalent two-word or longer phrase instead of engaging in aggression (Davis, T.N. et al., 2018). Single-Subject Design The single-subject design that was used for this study was an ABABC design, with the C phase representing demand fading. Baseline, FCT, and demand fading sessions were 5 minutes in duration each. Data Collection Procedure and Interobserver Agreement Method A functional analysis was done before the study began to determine the function of the participants aggression. It was found that the participants aggression was being maintained by negative reinforcement of escaping tasks. Data was collected in this study by measuring all attempted and completed aggression instances. The dependent variable was measured using a partial interval recording system, each interval was 10 seconds. Functional communication response was measured in 10 second intervals using a partial interval recording system. Task completion was defined by research as the number of upper- or lower-case letters written legibly on lined paper, data was collected using a frequency count. Researchers in this study used an exact count per interval IOA method. The observer attended 83 percent of the trail sessions (Davis, T.N. et al., 2018). Interobserver agreement (IOA) for aggression and communication was calculated by the number of intervals in which both observers agreed divided by the total number of intervals and then converting it to a percentage (Davis, T.N. et al., 2018). Interobserver agreement for task completion was calculated by dividing the smaller number of observed occurrences by the larger number of observed occurrences and then converted it into a percentage. Validity This study lacks external validity because the study consisted of one participant. Due to the study only including one participant it does not show any generalization to other people or settings. This study could be replicated and include additional participants, different ages, and in different settings to rove external validity. Though this study lacked external validity, 3

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internal validity was shown. Internal validity was shown by the connection of the two variables. The participants aggression decreased, and the participants functional communication responses increased when the treatment was implemented. Though FCT was effective at reducing the targeted behavior, it lacked social validity because the task completion remained unaffected (Davis, T.N. et al., 2018). Implementing a replacement behavior and providing a safer way to achieve the same outcomes, will positively benefit and increase quality of life for the participant. Functional communication and demand fading are both evidence-based interventions with thorough research. Conclusions The results from the study are consistent with previous findings and research related to FCT and limitations for negatively reinforced problem behaviors. During the baseline phase aggression was seen at high rates. During FCT intervention problem behavior quickly decreased and was seen at a rate below ten percent but functional communication responses were emitted so often that the participant never completed a single task. When the intervention was removed the rate of aggressive behavior increased to higher levels then seen in baseline. Demand fading was implemented and addressed limitations that were seen with functional communication training. Escape extinction was eliminated within this study but It was concluded by the researches that concurrent schedules of reinforcement paired with functional communication training would be an alternative to using escape extinction while implementing demand fading procedures. It was concluded that concurrent schedules of reinforcement are a viable treatment component to demand fading (Davis, T.N. et al., 2018). Article 2 4

APA-formatted reference: Hu, & Lee, G. (2019). Effects of PECS on the Emergence of Vocal Mands and the Reduction of Aggressive Behavior Across Settings for a Child With Autism. Behavioral Disorders Journal of the Council for Children with Behavioral Disorders., 44(4), 215–226. https://doi.org/10.1177/0198742918806925 Dependent Variable The dependent variable presented in this study was aggression and vocal mands. Aggression was defined as one push, hit, kick, bite, or throwing objects towards others. Vocal mands were defined as requesting a preferred item with at least a one-word approximation or a spoken intelligible word with or without a corresponding PECs picture or gestural pointing. Independent Variable The independent variable used in this study was the use of picture exchange communication (PECs) system on vocal mands. PECs were used as a replacement behavior for aggression to teach the participant a functional way to communicate wants and needs. Single-Subject Design The single-subject design used in this study was a multiple baseline design across three setting s for vocal mands, aggression, and a multiple probe design across three setting for PECs exchanges. Data Collection Procedure and Interobserver Agreement Method Prior to the implementation of PECS intervention, a preference assessment was conducted. PECs exchange was calculated using the totally number of opportunities that were available to mand and dividing it by the correct PECS exchanges. as the percentage of trials. Vocal mands were measured using a frequency count and instances of aggressive behavior was collected using a frequency count as well. Data During the first baseline probes no PECS pictures were presented and data was collected over a 15-minute natural observation across three settings. During PECs intervention data was collected over a 15-minute training session and then over a 15-minute probe session across each setting. Interobserver agreement (IOA) and procedural fidelity was assessed by including a second observer who did not know the purpose of the study. They were trained to collect data from the videotapes independently and separately from the experimenter (Hu, & Lee, G., 2019). was collected for half of the probe session IOA data was collected for 50 percent of the training sessions and 50 percent of the robe sessions across conditions and settings. IOA data was assessed by dividing the number of agreements by the number of agreements plus disagreements and then multiplying by 100 (Hu, & Lee, G., 2019). The agreement on percentage of PECs exchanged averaged 94%, the frequency of vocal mands averaged 95%, and the frequency of aggressive behavior averaged 94%. Validity This study only had one participant making it lack external validity. Though the study did implement intervention across three different settings, there is minimal external validity. The connection between the different variables and results from intervention prove internal validity 5

for this study. When intervention was implemented, and the PECs were available in each setting the aggressive behavior was reduced. The participants parents and teachers reported positive changes in the participant, participants usage of PECs and vocal mands, and lower levels of aggressive behavior at home and classroom. This proves social validity in this study. Conclusions This study provides evidence that PECs facilitated emergence of vocal mands and aided in reducing aggressive behaviors with a function of obtaining tangible items. During the first baseline phase vocal mands were counted only 4 times. After PECs were introduced the participant increased manding across each phase and setting. Once intervention was implemented the participant began using the PECs to mand and request for items and aggressive behaviors greatly reduced. Aggressive behaviors decreased in the intervention condition in the therapy room, but the participant maintained relatively high levels of aggressive behavior in other setting when the PECS book was not presented. Article 3 6

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APA-formatted reference: Dupuis, D. L., Lerman, D. C., Tsami, L., & Shireman, M. L. (2015). REDUCTION OF AGGRESSION EVOKED BY SOUNDS USING NONCONTINGENT REINFORCEMENT AND TIME-OUT. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 48 (3), 669-674. https://doi- org.library.capella.edu/10.1002/jaba.220 Dependent Variable The decedent variable presented in this study was aggression. Aggression was defined as hitting, kicking, biting, hair pulling, and grabbing. Independent Variable The independent variable in this study was noncontingent reinforcement and time-out with positive reinforcement without the use of extinction. Single-Subject Design The single-subject design used in this study was a multiple baseline design across sounds combined with a reversal design for the first sound. Data Collection Procedure and Interobserver Agreement Method Data was collected using a frequency for aggression by trained observers using handheld computers. The data was collected as responses per minute. Secondary observers viewed video recordings and scored at least 30 percent of sessions in each condition. Interobserver agreement was calculated by dividing the smaller number in each 10 second interval by the larger number in each 10 second interval. It was them summarized across intervals and converted to a percentage. The meant for IOA was 97%. The mean for procedural integrity was 99%. Validity Similar to the other studies I reviewed this study lacks external validity due to it only having one participant. Future studies could be conducted with more participants to prove external validity in the future. Within the study internal validity is seen due to the independent variable influencing the dependent variable. When the intervention was implemented, aggression decreased. Due to aggression decreasing and the use of an evidence-based intervention it is shown that there is social validity. Conclusions Results from this study replicate and extend prior research on the use of positive reinforcement to decreasing problem behaviors that are maintained by negative reinforcement. In the first phase of this study a functional analysis was done, and aggression was seen at the highest levels in the tangible and escape conditions. The noise assessment showed that aggression was at high levels when the therapist sang “Wheels on the bus”. The lowest levels of aggression were seen in the presence of the control sounds. When the intervention was implemented, aggression gradually decreased and then increased during the reversal to baseline. When control sound was playing (30 dB and 60 dB) aggression was seen at low levels. It was shown 7

that the participants decrease in aggressive behaviors were maintained 3 months later. Article 4 8

APA-formatted reference: Sadler. (2019). Video Self-Modeling to Treat Aggression in Students Significantly Impacted by Autism Spectrum Disorder. Journal of Special Education Technology., 34(4), 215–225. https://doi.org/10.1177/0162643418822070 Dependent Variable The dependent variable presented in this study was aggression and replacement behavior. Aggression was defined as any instances of physical contact that results in harming oneself or another individual. Each replacement behavior was based on the outcome of the direct and indirect observations of the participants. Independent Variable The independent variable presented in this study was the video self-modeling (VSM). The individual serves as the model, the video features the individual independently performing the target behavior, and the modeling video is less than 3 minutes long, and the participant watches the video daily (Sadler, 2019). Single-Subject Design The single-subject design used in this study was a single case design with intersubject replication. Data Collection Procedure and Interobserver Agreement Method Using data collected form the functional behavior assessments and preference assessments, the researchers created videos that depicted the participant demonstrating the replacement behavior and receiving a desirable consequence. Each single-case included three phases baseline (A), VSM intervention (B), and VSN and discrete instruction (C). For one participant a 5-minute partial interval recoding system was implanted to collect data on the two dependent variables. The observer marked a “+”if the behavior occurred any time during the interval and marked a “-“ if the behavior did not occur during the interval. own whether a behavior occurred any time during the interval. The recording system remained in place during all conditions. For the other two participants an event recording system was used to collect data on the dependent variables during times were most likely to engage in aggressive behaviors. This was conducted for periods of 120 minutes twice per day during instructional sessions. Interobserver agreement consisted of independent observers and prior to collecting data they participated in a training session. The percentage of interobserver agreement was calculated by summing the total number of recording intervals then dividing the total number of agreements plus disagreements, and then multiplying by 100. Inter observer agreement was between 84 and 98 percent for all participants. Validity Social validity was measured using a questionnaire given to the special education teacher and six paraprofessionals. Social validity was strong for all three participants. It was reported that the intervention was easy to implement, and the teachers felt they could continue to use the intervention in the future. Due to there being three single cases in one classroom there is a 9

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threat on external validity. To increase external validity to researcher could have completed the study across multiple setting and had a variety of participants from different classrooms. Internal validity was seen by the decrease in the targeted behavior when the intervention was implemented. Conclusions The results from the study provide evidence for the effectiveness of a VSM intervention derived from a functional assessment to reduce aggressive behavior. This study showed decreases in aggressive behavior compared to baseline conditions and an immediate decrease in aggressive behavior upon implementation of the intervention. Participant 1 had an immediate decrease in aggressive behaviors between 17-2%, participant 2 had a 9-4% decrease in aggressive behaviors and participant 3 had a 10.6-3.5% decrease in aggressive behaviors. When the intervention was introduced, aggression decreased, suggesting that the intervention brought the aggressive behaviors under some degree of control. 10

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