PSYC304 Discussion #7

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Oct 30, 2023

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This week we will examine the chemical sense of smell (olfaction) and taste. This is a two-part discussion question (part one pertaining to olfaction and part two pertaining to taste) and both parts must be answered in order to receive full credit. After viewing the material for this week as outlined in the syllabus, discuss the components of the olfactory system: the olfactory receptors, the olfactory sensory neurons, the olfactory bulb, and the cortex. Then, discuss what kinds of evidence support the idea that different people may have different taste experiences. What mechanisms might be responsible for these differences? Lastly, explain the role of culture in the development of smell and taste and provide two examples of how culture could account for variation in perception. Part I Olfaction, or the sense of smell as it is more widely known, is critical for both food selection and reproduction, especially when combined with the sense of taste (gustation). In fact, taste and smell are so intimately related that most individuals speak to the multimodal experience of taste and smell when they talk about the taste of something. According to research on single-cell organisms, the combined chemical sense of taste and smell is arguably the oldest and most widely used of the senses. Since then, taste and smell have split to the point that gustation is primarily a proximal sense that allows us to detect close stimuli while olfaction may identify more distal stimuli. The Olfactory System Like other sensory systems, olfactory information must be transmitted from peripheral structures (the olfactory epithelium) to central structures (the bulb and cortex), integrated to detect and discriminate specific stimuli, and then transferred to other brain regions to achieve sensory awareness and affect behavior. Like other sense systems, the olfactory system may locate items by their odors. Three key differences distinguish the olfactory system from the other senses. Olfaction is the only sensory modality directly related to the cerebral hemisphere. Second, olfactory integration and analysis may not involve topography outside the bulb. Third, olfactory receptor neurons quickly alter throughout life. Olfactory neurons live 30-60 days. The basal stem

cells of the olfactory epithelium divide mitotically to replenish them. Olfactory receptors are the only neurons implanted on the surface epithelium and instantly exposed to the environment (van Hartevelt & Kringelbach, 2011). Olfactory Receptors The primary olfactory epithelium (OE) detects smells first in the upper area of the nose. Millions of olfactory sensory neurons in this region interact with odor molecules via olfactory receptors (ORs), which are members of the G protein-coupled receptor superfamily. The binding of scents to the ORs causes an electrical signal to pass along the axons to the brain's primary olfactory bulb. The data is subsequently transferred to other areas of the brain, resulting in smell perception as well as emotional and behavioral responses[ CITATION Gle19 \l 1033 ]. Olfactory Sensory Neurons Olfactory receptor neurons within the olfactory neuroepithelium serve as the initial step in the olfactory pathway (from the epithelium to the olfactory bulb). Olfactory receptor neurons live in an exceptionally stressful environment for a neuron, as they are located within the nasal epithelium and have processes that extend over the mucosal surface, exposing them to unpleasant physical, chemical, and microbiological stimuli. As a result, olfactory receptor neurons are constantly being replaced, and the sensory neuron population must be replenished throughout adulthood. Olfactory Bulb Olfactory neurons from the nasal olfactory epithelium feed the olfactory bulb. The glomeruli (one per smell) innervate mitral cell dendrites that connect to the olfactory cortex and other forebrain regions. Local circuits in the glomeruli and plexiform layers refine olfactory output. The main and auxiliary olfactory bulbs detect pheromones. The olfactory bulb is at the bottom of

the human brain, but other vertebrates have it at the front. The human olfactory bulb is smaller than other animals. The olfactory bulb has five layers: glomerular, external, mitral cell, internal, and granule cell. Synaptic processing begins with the glomeruli layer, which is divided into zones and clusters that reflect spatial odors. Mitral cells, granule cells, astrocytes, and interneurons' dendrites dominate the second level, the exterior plexiform layer. Mitral cells output to the olfactory cortex and receive information from the granule cell layer in the bulb's core in the third phase. The cortex Typically, the olfactory cortex receives direct input from the bulb. Large regions of the olfactory peduncle and ventrolateral forebrain in rodents and ventromedial areas in humans are included. The anterior olfactory nucleus, olfactory tubercle, amygdala's cortical nucleus, piriform cortex, and even lateral sections of the entorhinal cortex are target areas, however, direct input from the olfactory bulb is limited. In addition to olfactory bulb input, the olfactory cortex interacts strongly and reciprocally with limbic areas such as the amygdala, hypothalamus, and perirhinal cortex. The locus coeruleus, raphe nucleus, and horizontal limb of Broca's diagonal band (acetylcholine) also innervate strongly. These limbic and modulatory linkages affect cortical smell responses dependent on behavior, hedonic valence, arousal, and attention (Wilson & Rennaker, 2010). Part II Differences in Tastes

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Different individuals may have varied taste experiences due to several reasons that include genetic variances, past experiences, how they were raised, and cultural influences. Examples: Exposure to other cultures and consumption of various cuisines might shape individual taste preferences. Individuals raised in countries where aromatic herbs like basil, oregano, thyme, and rosemary are commonly used may develop a taste for their unique flavor and incorporate them more regularly in their cooking. Likewise, those who have been introduced to spicy cuisine at an early age, particularly in specific cultural environments, may acquire a greater capacity to tolerate and get pleasure from spicy tastes in contrast to those with limited exposure. Differences in Smells Culture plays a significant role in the development of smell and taste perception. It influences our food choices, flavor preferences, and even the way we perceive and describe smells. When two people smell the same thing, they can have remarkably different reactions, depending on their cultural background. Examples: Various civilizations possess distinct mixes of flavors that are seen as enjoyable or desirable. Certain cultures highly appreciate the combination of seasonings that possess a sweet and spicy flavor profile, whereas other cultures place great importance on the combination of seasonings that exhibit a sweet and sour taste. Individuals' perceptions and appreciation of diverse flavors are influenced by these cultural preferences.

Smells can be influenced by many cultures, which in turn affects how we perceive and understand them. Cultural variables can influence whether certain smells are perceived as pleasant or unpleasant. The aroma of spicy cuisine may be much appreciated and appealing in certain societies, yet it may be seen as undesirable in other societies. References Glezer, I., & Malnic, B. (2019). Olfactory receptor function. Handbook of Clinical Neurology, 164 , 67-78. doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-63855-7.00005-8 van Hartevelt, T. J., & Kringelbach, M. L. (2011). The Olfactory System. In J. K. Mai, & G. Paxinos, The Human nervous system (3rd ed.) (pp. 1219-1238). Elsevier Science & Technology. Wilson, D. A., & Rennaker, R. L. (2010). Cortical Activity Evoked by Odors. In The Neurobiology of Olfaction. Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press/Taylor & Francis. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK55970/

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