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1 Genetics Influencing Gender Differences in Personality CHYS 2P10: Child Development Joceline Gaffan Cadance Humphrys 7133680 Wednesday November 23 rd , 2022

2 Both genetic and social factors influence many aspects of a child’s development throughout various experiences. These experiences will shape the child’s identity and personality throughout their life. The first few years of a child’s life are crucial to ensure that the child receives a positive outcome in life and strives to be independent, successful, and happy. Because of these strong genetic and social influences that are not controlled by the child, it is society's job to guarantee that children have a healthy environment to have a space for positive development. The influences in terms of genetic factors include the phenotype and genotype characteristics and directly affect the child. Phenotype is the physical characteristics expressed. Such as eye color, hair color, or height. Genotype is the underlying genetic makeup of the child. Genetic factors can also include personality, intelligence, and behavioral patterns. These can be inherited through parents and passed off to offspring. There are also social influences which include the physical surrounding environment. Such as social gatherings, like school, home, church, etc. These influences also affect a child’s life because of the direct influence of social interaction. Genetic and social factors both intertwine with one another and can both directly influence a child’s life. In the debate, it was also discussed the genetic influences and how these dramatically influence sex differences in personality because of the differences in genetic makeup between sexes. These differences are caused by significantly different brain structures between females and males. Which then in turn, will influence the personality differences because of dramatic differences between brain structure. These statements were proven during a study measuring personality differences with the NEO-FFI personality test. As well as measuring gray matter volume in brain scans and the differences that were discovered between 182 male and 182 female brain scans (Nostro et al., 2017). It was also discussed that the dramatic differences between male and female sex differences in personality across nation wide studies is supporting

3 the idea that genetics is the stronger influence in this case. This study had self reports that were completed online across 48 different countries. These self reports used the HEXACO personality test to measure personality differences among the different sexes. Results found that there were significant differences in the “Emotionality” trait specifically between women and men. This supports the idea that genetics influence personality development individually and across national levels (Lee & Ashton, 2020). The last supporting article mentioned the studies with dizygotic and monozygotic twins as well as non-twins and their influences on personality studies and sex differences. They used the Big Five Personality test to measure personality differences. Which concluded that genetic influences are a factor in personality differences between sexes (Mosing et al., 2016) When discussing an inherited trait such as personality, genetics is the influence that affects personality development further, rather than social influences. In this paper, it argues the genetic influences that affect personality differences across sexes and influences stronger than social influences. A question concerning the connections between genetics and evolution would be explaining the personality differences between males and females in terms of genetic evolution. Genetic evolution is constantly everchanging and will continue to change and grow because of theories like natural selection where the fittest species is able to reproduce. This is the care for many animals, including humans. Evolution is important to consider when looking at development in personalities to see where genetic and social influences can control an individual’s personality traits. To argue this question, the articles will analyze how genetic evolution can influence sex differences. This article is titled The Evolution of Culturally Variable Sex Differences by David P. Schmitt. In this article, they analyzed the ways men and women are different through their behaviors, as well as challenging the social role theories and looking at 21

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4 different sets of data sources that challenge these ideas. The article had summarized a few ways genetic evolution can affect sex differences across cultures. The first is labelled Obligate Evolved Sex Differences (Schmitt, 2014). This mentions how men and women choose their mate partner, and the similar traits men and women look for when finding a partner. These habits fall into the sexual selection theories that have been supported throughout history. It also mentions how men and women adapt to these specific roles throughout cultures (Schmitt, 2014). The second way evolution affects sex differences is labelled “Facultatively-Mediated Sex Differences” which describes the ways men and women can simply adapt to certain ecological conditions because they have a specific sensitivity to varying conditions depending on culture (Schmitt, 2014). The next label is a combination of the two forms titled “Emergently Moderated Sex differences (Schmitt, 2014). As well as analyzing the social roles which plays a factor in the sex differences across various cultures. These four distinctive ways that describe the evolution between sex differences supports that genetics can influence sex differences because there are evolutionary studies that look at the specifics in behaviour, brain psychology design, and reasonings behind mate selection and why cultures are the same in terms of sex differences. This is important to argue when talking about personality differences among sexes because these evolutionary differences affect societies and cultures throughout the development of evolution. This article supports my response that genetics is a stronger influence than social influences in terms of personality development. The next article that will support my response to this question is titled Why Can’t a Man Be More Like a Woman? Sex Differences in Big Five Personality Traits Across 55 Cultures By David P. Schmitt. This article focuses more on the specific personality traits that differ among men and women. This article summarized a study that was conducted where a cross-cultural

5 study across 55 countries was used. (N=17,637) (Schmitt, 2007). This study used the Big Five Personality test. The study resulted in women scoring higher in levels of neuroticism, extraversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness, while men had lower scores (Schmitt, 2007). These results support the idea that there are significant sex differences across personalities. The article also mentioned the genetic evolutionary influences that affect the size of personality differences. These propositions conclude that the reasonings behind the sizes of sex differences are inherited through genetics. Also mentioning that sexes are only different from each other in spaces where they are confronted with adaptive problems throughout their evolution (Schmitt, 2007). This study specifically mentioned the personality differences between sexes as well as the evolutionary causes from these differences throughout different cultures. This also supports the idea that genetics has a stronger influence than social influences. The last article to discuss is the article that was mentioned in my debate titled Correlations Between Personality and Brain Structure: A Crucial Role of Development by Alessandra D. Nostro. This article discussed the study measuring gray matter volume in brain scans as well as using the NEO FFI personality test to measure both personality and brain structure (Nostro et al., 2017). Which also proved that women and men tested higher or lower for certain personality traits as well as men testing for specific traits in their brain scans looking for gray matter volume. The supporting factors that help prove this response supports the genetic evolution factors as well as the biological factors that influence personality development between different sexes.

6 Frequent questions that are asked in terms of this subject are if there is a certain point in a child’s development where genetics play a significant role in one’s personality. Both social and genetic factors play a significant role in development throughout the lifespan. However, there are specific factors that are genetically inherited. Such as intelligence, personality traits, and behaviors. These are genetically inherited because social factors do not contribute to these factors in child development. The first article that supports this idea that genetics are prevalent in child development in a specific part of development, is the article titled Genetic and Environmental Continuity in Personality Development: A Meta-Analysis by Daniel A. Briley and Elliot M. Tucker-Drob. This article mentions that childhood personality cannot be predominant at this stage but can grow overtime into adolescents because of social influences and development. This article looked at the individual differences in genetically inherited personality development as well as the influences society has in adolescents. This article mentions a study involving 24 longitudinal behavioural genetic studies that revolve around information from 21,057 sibling pairs from 6 types corresponding genetic factors that relate to each other. These age ranges are from infancy to old age. This study also used meta-analysis and linear and non- linear evaluations that look at the genetic inherited differences between personality differences, as well as looking at old age and the social influences that affect personality development (Briley et al., 2014). The results of this study had concluded that individual differences involving thoughts, behaviours, feelings throughout childhood come to a balance throughout childhood and development (Briley et al., 2014). Environmental and genetic influences also increase in balance throughout the life span and near age 30 is where genetic balance is calmed, and social influences start to play a factor across the rest of the lifespan. This would support the idea that there is a time in a child’s development where genetic factors play a bigger factor in personality

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7 development because there are not as many social influences and experiences that can affect personality (Briley et al., 2014). The next article supports the idea that genetics factor into personality development over social influences in a specific part of childhood development. This article discusses how social influences such as parenting styles or environments in formal or informal settings in Indonesia influence character building. As well as looking at the genetically inherited factors that contribute to character building (Asbari et al., 2020). This research was a correlational study using surveys and quantitative methods. They also received their information from parents and students from Aya Sophia Foundation Islamic School. They used an electronic questionnaire and received 398 samples (Asbrai et al., 2020). They also measured parents to analyze their parenting styles as well as looking at the genetic variation between the parents and the child. The results from this study concluded that positive parenting styles and genetic personality go hand in hand to promote positive character development in children. This supports that genetics have an influence on personality development in childhood because there are positive influences when genetic personality individual differences are taken into consideration. The last article that I will connect to this question is the article titled Individual Differences in Personality Masculinity-Femininity: Examining the Effects of Genes, Environment, and Prenatal Hormone Transfer by Karin J. H. Verweij et al. This study looked at twin studies and the genetic, environmental, and prenatal hormones influencing personality development throughout childhood. This responds to the genetic aspects playing a more frequent role in personality development. The study revolves around using the Big Five Personality test data from 9,520 Swedish twins aged 27 to 54. They used a masculinity-femininity scale using the results from the personality tests to see which gender falls in line with certain personality traits

8 (Verweij et al., 2016). This study assessed genetic and environmental influence on individual differences in personality traits. The results of this study concluded that one third of the variety on the Masculinity-Femininity scale was caused by genetic factors (Verweij et al., 2016). This study also connects to the notion that genetics play a stronger factor in personality development in children than social factors because this study resulted in genetics having a stronger influence. Another common question when discussing genetics in terms of personality development would be, how genetics contribute as a factor to societies that have differing gender roles from the norm in Western society. This question can be answered with an article titled Sex Differences in Genetic Influences on Educational Attainment and Income by Ragnhild E. Orstavik et al. This article focused on the educational differences, income differences, and behavior and personality differences between men and women. They analyzed these differences and studied the genetic and environmental factors that influence these differences with Norwegian twins and emphasized gender differences throughout the studies. This study involved 7,710 twins aged 29-41 years old. They looked at their educational levels and incomes (Orstavik et al., 2014). The results implied that in a Western society with a gender equal mindset, with government support to be successful in educational spaces and employment settings, these factors play into the explanation of genetics playing a role in sex differences in educational and employment settings. This study supports the response that genetics contribute to societies that have different gender roles because this study was done in Norway and their social roles differ compared to a Western society as well as individual personality differences. However, both the Western society and Norway society have the same results in terms of social roles. Which would imply that genetics have an influence on the way gender roles are factored into societies.

9 The next article that suggests that genetics play a role in gender roles from different societies would be the article I used in my debate titled Sex Differences in HEXACO Personality Characteristics Across Countries and Ethnicities by Kibeom Lee and Michael C. Ashton. This article analyzed a study using the HEXACO Personality test and measuring individual personality differences between sexes as well as national level sex differences. These self-reports were done online in 48 different countries (N=347,192) (Lee & Ashton, 2020). The results from these studies concluded that there were larger sex differences throughout countries that were more equality gender based, rather than countries that did not accept these ideas. Continuing with results from this study, women had averaged higher in emotionality personality trait specifically (Lee & Ashton, 2020). This study supports the idea that gender differences in personality affect individual scales as well as national scales because social roles differ depending on the society. Regardless, genetics play a factor in the results of the personality tests and the outcome of social roles across various cultures. To conclude my paper, I mentioned how genetics play a larger role in personality development across sexes than social factors. This argument can be analyzed throughout many cross-cultural lenses, longitudinal studies, and meta-analyses studies. Genetics plays a more prominent role throughout personality development because of brain and hormone structures, as well as various inherited factors that all contribute to personality development. I had also responded to questions that relate to this topic. Specifically, looking at genetic evolution and the studies that are used to support the argument that personality differences are evolutionary and constantly change with societies. I also mentioned where genetics play a more significant role in personality development rather than social factors. As well as mentioning the studies relating to national-level sex differences and individual sex differences all relating to personality

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10 development and how social roles can impact the size of sex differences across cultures. All these questions and responses can all connect to the argument that genetics play a significant role in personality development throughout sexes. This argument can obviously fluctuate and change when new studies become relevant, and more ideas are made. Now that I have received a good analysis at academic research, I would argue that both genetics and social roles play a significant role in personality development throughout the lifespan. However, in childhood personality development, genetics play a dominant role as the child develops new experiences in social settings.

11 References Asbari, M., Nurhayati, W., & Purwanto, A. (2020, January 1). Directory of open access journals. Jurnal Penelitian dan Evaluasi Pendidikan. https://doaj.org/article/b09f04770bb148eab2b9bf31d67df11f Alessandra D. Nostro, Veronika I. Müller, Andrew T. Reid, Simon B. Eickhoff, Correlations Between Personality and Brain Structure: A Crucial Role of Gender, Cerebral Cortex, Volume 27, Issue 7, July 2017, Pages 3698–3712, https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhw191 Briley, D. A., & Tucker-Drob, E. M. (2014). Genetic and environmental continuity in personality development: A meta-analysis.Psychological Bulletin, 140(5), 1303–1331. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037091 Lee, Kibeom., Ashton, Michael C., (2020). Sex differences in HEXACO PERSONALITY ... - wiley online library. (n.d.). https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jopy.12551 Ørstavik, R., Czajkowski, N., Røysamb, E., Knudsen, G., Tambs, K., & Reichborn-Kjennerud, T. (2014). Sex Differences in Genetic and Environmental Influences on Educational Attainment and Income. Twin Research and Human Genetics, 17(6), 516-525. doi:10.1017/thg.2014.68 Schmitt, D. (2015). The Evolution of Culturally Variable Sex Differences: Men and Women Are Not Always Different, but When They Are…It Appears Not to Result from Patriarchy or Sex Role Socialization. In: Shackelford, T., Hansen, R. (eds) The Evolution of Sexuality. Evolutionary Psychology. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-09384-0_11 Schmitt, D. P., Realo, A., Voracek, M., & Allik, J. (2008). Why can't a man be more like a woman? Sex differences in Big Five personality traits across 55 cultures.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94(1), 168–182. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.94.1.168

12 Verweij, K., Mosing, M., Ullén, F., & Madison, G. (2016). Individual Differences in Personality Masculinity-Femininity: Examining the Effects of Genes, Environment, and Prenatal Hormone Transfer. Twin Research and Human Genetics, 19(2), 87-96. doi:10.1017/thg.2016.8

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