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1 Psychological Assessment Guide Student’s Name Institutional Affiliation Course Name Professor’s Name Date

2 Psychological Assessment Guide Section 1: Introduction and Overview In this section, we delve into the multifaceted dimensions of the assessment process. Our exploration encompasses a definition of tests and psychological assessments, the categorization of tests, and the identification of diverse categories within psychological assessments. We will delve into the critical concepts of validity and reliability in testing, their application to psychological assessments, the role of testing in diagnostics, the administrator of diagnoses, and a brief description of the professionals involved in the assessment process. Furthermore, we will consider the vital aspect of culture in assessment and the implications of cultural diversity in the context of psychological assessments. Definition of a Test A test, within the realm of psychological assessment, is a structured and data-driven process that diligently employs the scientific method to yield dependable data ( Hogan, 2019).   These data serve to augment the researcher's understanding of the hypothesis under scrutiny. Tests serve the crucial role of either substantiating or refuting the case under investigation. It is essential to acknowledge that tests can be conducted across a spectrum of subjects, employing varying criteria to yield empirical findings within the domain of psychology. Psychological Assessment Psychological assessments encompass purpose-driven tests designed to evaluate the emotional and cognitive facets and capabilities of individuals spanning different age groups, Figure 1: Licensed under Unknown Author

4 components that constitute an individual's character. Clinical assessments empower clinicians and psychologists to diagnose a broad spectrum of mental disorders, enabling the formulation of tailored treatment plans. The process of intellectual assessment is crucial in the identification of an individual's cognitive capacities and constraints. Reliability and Validity The essential criteria that ascertain the appropriateness of a psychological test for a particular situation are reliability and validity. Validity refers to the extent to which a test accurately measures the precise traits it intends to assess, hence determining its suitability for the particular research or therapeutic setting ( Loewenthal & Lewis, 2020). In contrast, reliability pertains to the degree of consistency in test results when administered under different conditions, hence reducing the influence of external variables that could potentially introduce errors into the assessment procedure ( Loewenthal & Lewis, 2020). Validity comprises three unique facets: content validity, criterion validity, and construct validity. Concepts of Reliability and Validity as they Apply to Psychological Assessment Within the domain of psychological evaluation, reliability functions as a measure to assess the degree of relative error and intrinsic correctness present in the data derived from psychological tests ( Mohajan, 2017). The metric under consideration focuses on the reliability of test results across varying settings, with the objective of reducing the impact of environmental elements that could potentially introduce inaccuracies into the evaluation procedure. The notion Figure 3: Source https://psychologenie.com/concepts-of-reliability- validity-explained-with-examples

5 of validity encompasses multiple dimensions within the realm of assessment, including “content validity, criteria validity, and construct validity” ( Loewenthal & Lewis, 2020). Content validity evaluates the extent to which a test effectively captures and measures the intended variables ( Mohajan, 2017). Criterion validity evaluates the degree to which different forms of assessments can produce the most precise information from a given exam. In contrast, construct validity seeks to illuminate how individuals with high or low scores on the assessment respond differentially to various experiences or modeled procedures, though it is challenging to ascertain due to its intangible nature. Testing and Assessment in the Diagnostic Process Testing and assessment hold pivotal roles in the realm of clinical diagnostics by providing reliable data that forms the foundation for the formulation of effective treatment plans. Diagnostic assessments employ an array of criteria, often involving checklists and questionnaires that patients complete to provide data relevant to the evaluation ( Mohajan, 2017). It is imperative to acknowledge that diagnostic assessment may encompass activities such as test interviews, the review of patient records, or direct observation. Subsequently, the collected data undergoes standardized analysis procedures to yield a clinically meaningful diagnosis, serving as the cornerstone for informed medical decision-making. Professionals Who Administer Tests Psychological tests are meticulous and highly structured processes necessitating precision and accuracy in data collection, analysis, and interpretation ( Kaplan & Saccuzzo, 2017).   Qualified psychologists undertake the administration of Figure 4: Source https://leverageedu.com/blog/types-of- psychological-tests/

7 Intelligence tests encompass a series of tasks designed to assess an individual's capacity for abstraction, learning, and handling novel situations. Keith & Reynolds (2018) argues that intelligence tests gauge an individual's overall mental prowess concerning intelligent behavior. Reynolds et al., (2021) argues that intelligence, while viewed from various perspectives, is predominantly seen as an individual's ability to acquire and apply new knowledge and skills within their environment. Consequently, intelligence represents a person's aptitude to excel in accumulating diverse abilities, such as “reasoning, perceptual organization, and verbal comprehension,” which are pivotal in defining their academic achievements ( Reynolds et al., 2021). As posited by Reynolds et al., (2021), several categories of intelligence tests exist, including group tests, individual assessments, verbal assessments, and non-verbal intelligence tests. Keith & Reynolds (2018) posits that “group tests are administered to multiple individuals simultaneously, while individual tests are tailored for single individuals” (Keith & Reynolds (2018). Verbal tests employ language to assess intelligence, while nonverbal tests, such as performance tests, evaluate intelligence without relying on language. Intelligence testing scrutinizes various mental capacities in individuals, as outlined below: Figure 6: Source: https://www.discovermagazine.com/mind/do- iq-tests-actually-measure-intelligence Figure 5: Source: http://www.minddisorders.com/Flu-Inv/Intelli gence-tests.html

8 Figure 7: Source (Reynolds et al., 2021). There are several well-established intelligence tests in use today, varying in applicability based on factors like age, type of intelligence assessed, user experience, and scoring methods. These tests include: 1. “The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-IV (WAIS-IV)”: Widely regarded as among the most commonly used intelligence tests. This test measures intelligence in adults through “scores based on Intelligence Quotient (IQ), performance, and verbal abilities” ( Valentine et al., 2020). 2. “The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-IV (WISC-IV)”: This test operates like WAIS-IV but tailored for kids and teenagers aged 6 to 16 years, especially those with potential cognitive issues.

10 More information can be obtained from these sources.  Hartman, D. E. (2009). Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale IV (WAIS IV): return of the gold standard.   Applied neuropsychology ,   16 (1), 85-87. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09084280802644466  Gomez, R., Vance, A., & Watson, S. D. (2016). Structure of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children–Fourth Edition in a group of children with ADHD.   Frontiers in Psychology ,   7 , 737. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00737/full  Pitts, C. H., & Mervis, C. B. (2016). Performance on the Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test-2 by children with Williams syndrome.   American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities ,   121 (1), 33-47. https://meridian.allenpress.com/ajidd/article- abstract/121/1/33/6894/Performance-on-the-Kaufman-Brief-Intelligence-Test Tests of Achievement Achievement tests, as outlined by Abarghoie & Abarghoie (2012), evaluate an individual's acquired skills and knowledge. These “tests are designed to measure the knowledge and skills a person has gained within a specific grade level through planned instruction” ( Curabay, M. (2016).   Borghans et al. (2016) assert that achievement tests use scores to assess a person’s readiness for the level of instruction they can handle. These tests encompass various standardized assessments administered throughout an individual's educational journey, particularly during the teenage school years. Figure 8: source: https://checkmerobotornot.com/? p=gzrtizlbhe5gi3bpha2tgna&sub1=duda&sub3=844 mbq5826tu&sub4=what%2Bis%2Ban%2Bexample %2Bof%2Bachievement%2Btest%2Bin%2Bpsychology

11 Achievement tests come in various types based on purpose, timing, form, subject area, and methodology. They can be practical tests, oral tests, or written tests, incorporating short response queries, essay queries, objective queries, or a combination of these. Their purpose- driven categories encompass “spit tests, accuracy tests, prognostic tests, power tests, and diagnostic tests, among others” ( Curabay, 2016). Some prominent achievement assessments in the United States include the “Scholar Aptitude Test (SAT) and the American College Testing (ACT), primarily used for college placement” (Borghans et al., 2016). 1. SAT (Scholastic Aptitude Test): A widely recognized standardized test for college admissions in the U.S., it assesses math, comprehension, and writing. Exceptional SAT scores are often a prerequisite for admission to top-tier colleges (Abarghoie & Abarghoie, 2012). 2. “ACT (American College Testing)”: Another consistent test for university admissions in the U.S., the ACT evaluates academic skills in science reasoning, reading, English, and mathematics. It is accepted by numerous U.S. and international universities. 3. General Educational Development (GED): This test assesses adults and high school students through four subject tests, granting a high school equivalency credential upon successful completion. It offers an alternative for “individuals without a high school diploma or those who did not complete high school” (Borghans et al., 2016). Advantages of Achievement Tests:  Multiple Tests: Several achievement tests increase accuracy.  Consistent Content: Test content remains constant across test-takers.  Unbiased Scoring: The scoring process is typically free from bias. Disadvantages of Achievement Tests:

13 work or educational contexts. Within the context of organizational environments, the utilization of ability tests serves the purpose of ascertaining whether a prospective candidate possesses the necessary cognitive capabilities and skills that are essential for fulfilling specific job tasks ( Román-González et al., 2017). The assessments in question evaluate learned skills that are pertinent to particular jobs. They can manifest as standardized examinations or as a set of inquiries designed to measure an individual's cognitive capacities in terms of speed and accuracy. Ability tests are commonly utilized in educational environments to measure the academic accomplishments of students or evaluate the efficacy of an educational curriculum in facilitating the acquisition of fundamental knowledge ( Li & Bates, 2019). Nevertheless, notwithstanding its practicality, aptitude assessments frequently comprise a series of inquiries that pertain to a specific framework. The assessments can be conducted either individually or in a group setting to pupils. When the test is presented to a collective, it is simultaneously given to all participants, and the scores are determined by objective metrics and the application of knowledge acquired through an academic curriculum. On the other hand, group ability assessments encompass a significant and standardized array of inquiries. Frequently, these assessments incorporate questions of an open-ended nature that necessitate examiners to engage in analysis in order to ascertain scores. While the administration of individual tests is generally considered to be an easy Figure 10: Source: https://www.vectorstock.com/royalty-free- vector/positive-psychology-concept-psychological-test-vector- 30248802

14 process, the administration of group tests necessitates the involvement of professional psychologists who possess a comprehensive understanding of how group dynamics might exert an influence on the outcomes of such exams ( Li & Bates, 2019). In previous centuries, psychologists exhibited a preference for individual testing as opposed to group examinations, mostly motivated by the desire to streamline scoring procedures and mitigate potential complexities. Several notable ability tests include: 1. The Cognitive Abilities Test (CogAT) is a standardized assessment designed for students in grades K-12. It evaluates cognitive abilities in three domains: numeric, verbal, and nonverbal. The test consists of multiple-choice questions. The utilization of this assessment is frequently observed within educational institutions as a means of evaluating candidates for specialized programs. 2. The Raven's Progressive Matrices (RPM) is a nonverbal assessment tool that was initially introduced in 1938. It is designed to evaluate an individual's ability to engage in inductive logical reasoning by analyzing and interpreting visual patterns ( Kaufman, 2018).   The RPM method is appropriate for assessing individuals of various age groups, encompassing both children and adults. This includes individuals who may have physical limitations or encounter difficulties in hearing and verbal communication. 3. The multilevel battery refers to a standardized assessment test that is conducted in accordance with specific grade levels, such as the Achievement Battery K-12 assessment. 4. “The Multidimensional Aptitude Battery-II (MAB-II)” is a standardized assessment tool utilized in a range of professional fields, such as the military, government, and medical sectors. Its primary purpose is to evaluate an individual's capacity to execute

16 References Loewenthal, K. M., & Lewis, C. A. (2020).   An introduction to psychological tests and scales . Routledge. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9781315561387/introduction- psychological-tests-scales-kate-miriam-loewenthal-christopher-alan-lewis Hogan, T. P. (2019).   Psychological testing: A practical introduction . John Wiley & Sons. https://books.google.co.ke/books? hl=en&lr=&id=K7s6EAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA3&dq=types+of+psychological+tests +and+assessments&ots=r_McnCohiC&sig=X_sYeqJcKGqbBkwFHRt3hQJOdXY&redir _esc=y#v=onepage&q=types%20of%20psychological%20tests%20and %20assessments&f=false Mohajan, H. K. (2017). Two criteria for good measurements in research: Validity and reliability.   Annals of Spiru Haret University. Economic Series ,   17 (4), 59-82. https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=673569 Kaplan, R. M., & Saccuzzo, D. P. (2017).   Psychological testing: Principles, applications, and issues . Cengage Learning. https://books.google.co.ke/books? hl=en&lr=&id=Nl7EDQAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=administration+of+psychologi cal+testing&ots=Nc8ChG5sig&sig=D9c1bXHG- oxNCZrRiDdETWvwMBc&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=administration%20of %20psychological%20testing&f=false Keith, T. Z., & Reynolds, M. R. (2018). Using confirmatory factor analysis to aid in understanding the constructs measured by intelligence tests. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2018-36604-031

17 Reynolds, C. R., Altmann, R. A., & Allen, D. N. (2021). The problem of bias in psychological assessment. In   Mastering Modern Psychological Testing: Theory and Methods   (pp. 573- 613). Cham: Springer International Publishing. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-59455-8_15 Curabay, M. (2016).   Meta-analysis of the predictive validity of scholastic aptitude test (SAT) and American college testing (ACT) scores for college GPA   (Doctoral dissertation, University of Denver). https://www.proquest.com/openview/794ffe9c6f363c1638baa3f6a497d00e/1? pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750 Valentine, T., Block, C., Eversole, K., Boxley, L., & Dawson, E. (2020). Wechsler adult intelligence scale‐IV (WAIS‐IV).   The Wiley Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences: Measurement and Assessment , 457-463. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781118970843.ch146 Abarghoie, H. M., & Abarghoie, H. M. (2012). Development and Standardization of Achievement Test.   Journal of American Science ,   8 (4), 166-171. Román-González, M., Pérez-González, J. C., & Jiménez-Fernández, C. (2017). Which cognitive abilities underlie computational thinking? Criterion validity of the Computational Thinking Test.   Computers in human behavior ,   72 , 678-691. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0747563216306185 Li, Y., & Bates, T. C. (2019). You can’t change your basic ability, but you work at things, and that’s how we get hard things done: Testing the role of growth mindset on response to setbacks, educational attainment, and cognitive ability.   Journal of Experimental Psychology: General ,   148 (9), 1640. https://psycnet.apa.org/fulltext/2019-50726-002.html