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Feeney, S., Moravcik, E., & Nolte, S. (2018). Who Am I in the Lives of Children? an Introduction to Early Childhood Education. In Google Books . Pearson. https://books.google.co.ke/books/about/Who_Am_I_in_the_Lives_of_Children_an_Int.ht ml?id=dZ9aswEACAAJ&redir_esc=y For the introduction to early childhood education course in two- and four-year colleges. A warm and comprehensive child-centered approach to early childhood education Who Am I in the Lives of Children? An Introduction to Early Childhood Education reflects a practical, constructivist approach to early childhood education (birth to grade 3) and care programs that is dedicated to the development of the whole child-physical, social, emotional, and intellectual. With its highly readable personal voice, appealing photographs, authentic children's classroom work, and engaging stories, it allows readers to visualize effective classroom practices that speak to each child's strengths, interests, and challenges. This understanding-coupled with contemporary, research-based information-inspires readers to support each child's growth and learning in ways that are in harmony with who they are, rather than according to a predetermined plan. The 11th Edition of Who Am I in the Lives of Children? is also available via Revel(TM), an interactive learning environment that enables students to read, practice, and study in one continuous experience. Learn more about Revel. Keating, D. P. (2010). Nature and Nurture in Early Child Development. In Google Books . Cambridge University Press.

https://books.google.co.ke/books/about/Nature_and_Nurture_in_Early_Child_Develo.ht ml?id=0hdB63OT_RYC&redir_esc=y For developmental scientists, the nature versus nurture debate has been settled for some time. Neither nature nor nurture alone provides the answer. It is nature and nurture in concert that shape developmental pathways and outcomes, from health to behavior to competence. This insight has moved far beyond the assertion that both nature and nurture matter, progressing into the fascinating terrain of how they interact over the course of development. In this volume, students, practitioners, policy analysts, and others with a serious interest in human development will learn what is transpiring in this new paradigm from the developmental scientists working at the cutting edge, from neural mechanisms to population studies, and from basic laboratory science to clinical and community interventions. Early childhood development is the critical focus of this volume, because many of the important nature-nurture interactions occur then, with significant influences on lifelong developmental trajectories. Nature vs. Nurture Child Development: Exploring Key Differences October 8, 2020 Whether a child’s personality traits and behavioral tendencies are the sole result of heredity or a consequence of their upbringing is an age-old debate. Much of the controversy in nature vs. nurture child development is the result of a misunderstanding about genetics: the mistaken belief that fate and genetics are synonymous.

In fact, children’s genetic makeup is determined in many ways by their own experiences in their environment. The burgeoning field of epigenetics studies the effect of children’s early experiences on the chemical marks that accumulate in DNA and determine how much of a specific gene will be expressed, as the child development site First Five Years explains. All of these marks combined make up the epigenome; epigenetics is the study of these marks and their impact on children and adults. A group of children playing tug of war in the park Epigenetics and related fields in child development promise to give parents and educators new insights into how and why certain genes are expressed and others aren’t. Degree programs such as Maryville University’s online Bachelor of Arts in Human Development and Family Studies explore these areas to prepare students for careers that help families overcome challenges in their lives. Definitions: Nature vs. Nurture Child Development In the nature vs. nurture debate, “nature” is defined as all genes and hereditary factors that contribute to a person’s unique physical appearance, personality, and physiology. “Nurture” is defined as the many environmental variables that affect a person, including their experiences in early childhood, family and social relationships, culture, and community. Both nature and nurture are linked to the philosophical concepts of empiricism and rationalism.

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Empiricists believe that the ultimate source of all concepts and knowledge is our sense experience. Rationalists hold that the content of concepts and knowledge may at times surpass the information that sense experience alone provides. They also believe that some form of reasoning is the source of this added information about the world. Most researchers in child development are more interested in how nature and nurture interact than in determining which of the two may predominate. For example, Simply Psychology places various approaches to psychology on a continuum: At one end is the extreme nature position of nativists, who believe that behavioral tendencies, personality, and mental abilities are determined solely by heredity. At the opposite end is the extreme nurture position of empiricists, who consider a person’s psychological and physiological makeup to be entirely the result of their sense experiences. Between these two extremes are a number of fields that focus on the interplay of nature and nurture in child development. Among these are behavioral genetics, which studies the genetic impact on variations in behavior, and polygenic inheritance, which looks at the effect that large groups of genes collectively have on a person’s behavior. Similarities Between Nature and Nurture Child Development As researchers delve deeper into nature vs. nurture child development, they find that many aspects of development that were once thought to be determined by a child’s environment

also have a genetic component, whereas others that were believed to be controlled solely by heredity are greatly influenced by external factors. Today’s Parent explains that many past studies on the effect of a child’s experiences and environment are flawed because it’s impossible for researchers to effectively control for genetics. Conversely, studies that claim parenting has no impact on a child’s development ignore the vital role that parents play in encouraging the best attributes and behaviors in their children — and discouraging harmful or negative behaviors. Nature vs. Nurture: Influences Impacting Child Development Genes determine certain human characteristics, such as eye and hair color and the incidence of genetic diseases. However, most human traits, including life expectancy, height, and weight, have both an environmental and genetic component. For example, social learning theory states that children learn by observing the behavior of others, so parenting styles and the child’s learned experiences determine whether they behave politely or aggressively in specific situations. By contrast, learning’s genetic component encompasses the biological foundation of cognitive processes, as explained in Frontiers in Psychology. Genetic and epigenetic contributions to the learning process are inheritable and interact with behavioral learning such as study habits and the availability of educational resources. Nature vs. Nurture: Children’s Physical and Personality Traits

Two recent studies illustrate the important role of epigenetics in a child’s development. Researchers at the University of British Columbia, UCLA, and British Columbia Children’s Hospital discovered a genetic marker in a child’s DNA that serves as a chemical “clock” to indicate the child’s biological age, as reported in Science Daily. In a separate study reported in Psychology Today, researchers determined that toxin-related epigenetic changes, such as those caused by inhaling cigarette smoke, can be passed from parent to child genetically. The smoke triggers the expression of cancer-causing genes or suppresses the expression of those that protect against cancer. Children can inherit an epigenetic alteration from a parent. Nature vs. Nurture: How Both Contribute to Child Development The field of behavioral genetics studies how nature and nurture combine to affect a child’s development. It states that while genetics have a greater overall impact on a person’s makeup than their family environment does, most of an individual’s behavioral traits cannot be traced to specific genes or family characteristics. Instead, each human behavioral trait is associated with a great number of genetic variants, each of which contributes a very small amount to the expression of the trait. Differences Between Nature and Nurture Child Development Within the complex relationship between a child’s genetic makeup and learned experiences, distinctions can be drawn between the human traits that children are born with and those that result from their environment. The differences are evident in activities such as

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sleeping, crying, eating, socializing, and moving, all of which have clear nature and nurture components, as Firstcry Parenting explains. Nature: Genetic and Hereditary Influences A study of fraternal and identical twins found that babies’ sleeping patterns are determined primarily by genetics. Similarly, 60% of a baby’s temperament is set by their genetic makeup; whether they are sociable or shy is also primarily driven by genes. Also controlled primarily by heredity are the foods a baby prefers and whether the baby is active or sedentary. Nurture: Environmental Influences While genetics are key drivers of these and other aspects of a child’s development, that development is also influenced by what babies experience. For example, babies with poor sleep patterns can benefit from being exposed to sunlight during the day and by parents establishing a bedtime routine that induces better sleep. Whether a baby is easy to calm and soothe when crying is determined by genes, but swaddling, rocking, swaying, and other activities help overcome this genetic predisposition. Nature’s Biological Psychology, Nurture’s Behaviorism Biological psychology examines thoughts, feelings, and behaviors from a physiological perspective, as Verywell Mind describes. The field studies how a person’s brain, nervous system, hormones, and other physical features affect behavior. It also studies the

mechanisms of inheritance via genes on the behavioral likeness of identical twins, for example. Conversely, behaviorism (also called behavioral psychology) considers how interaction with the environment can condition behavior. This field considers only observable behavior, believing that moods, cognition, and emotions are too subjective to be measurable. Types of conditioning include classical conditioning, which pairs a neutral stimulus with a naturally occurring stimulus until each evokes the same response, and operant or instrumental conditioning, which uses reinforcements and punishments to evoke the desired behavior. Nature’s Scientific Influences, Nurture’s Social Constructs While approaches to child development that emphasize nature over nurture may appear to be more grounded in science than in behavior modification, both nature and nurture have scientific foundations that are paired with environmental controls. In general, nature looks at the impact of such physical approaches as neurotransmitters and genome sequencing on child development, while nurture focuses on aspects such as peer pressure and social influences. Sanvictores, T., & Mendez, M. D. (2022). Types of Parenting Styles and Effects On Children . PubMed; StatPearls Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK568743/ Types of Parenting Styles and Effects On Children Terrence Sanvictores; Magda D. Mendez.

Author Information and Affiliations Last Update: September 18, 2022. Go to: Definition/Introduction When it comes to parenting, there is a great deal of diversity among families. Cultural backgrounds have a major impact on how the family unit exists and how children are reared. In the last several years, the population of the United States of America has had a makeup. Changes driven by immigration (with different cultural, ethnic, and spiritual ideologies), socioeconomic status, and single-parent families are some of the factors that determine a variety of parenting styles among families. As per the 2014 U.S. Census Bureau data, ¼ of children lived in single-parent families, and three-fourths lived in households with two married parents. These patterns differ when race and ethnicity are considered. Although children can thrive in all types of family environments, data suggest that, on average, children living in single-parent families fare less well than their counterparts. The definition of culture refers to a pattern of social norms, values, language, and behavior shared by individuals. As a result, parents are affected by their culture. When it comes to self-regulation, parenting approaches vary across cultures concerning promoting attention, compliance, delayed gratification, executive function, and effortful control.

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Every parent has a different approach in how to interact and guide their children. A child’s morals, principles, and conduct are generally established through this bond. Different researchers have grouped parenting styles into three, four, five, or more psychological constructs. This article's content will only focus on four parenting categories: authoritarian, authoritative, permissive, and uninvolved. Every category employs a unique approach to how parents raise their children. Generally, each parent will fall into one of these categories and sometimes have some characteristics from another category. Parenting style can also be situation-dependent. Go to: Issues of Concern Authoritarian Parenting Parents of this style tend to have a one-way mode of communication where the parent establishes strict rules that the child obeys. There is little to no room for negotiations from the child, and the rules are not usually explained. They expect their children to uphold these standards while making no errors. Mistakes usually lead to punishment. Authoritarian parents are normally less nurturing and have high expectations with limited flexibility. Children that grow up with authoritarian parents will usually be the most well-behaved in the room because of the consequences of misbehaving. Additionally, they are better able to adhere to the precise instructions required to reach a goal. Furthermore, this parenting style can result in children who have higher levels of aggression but may also be shy,

socially inept, and unable to make their own decisions.[1] This aggression can remain uncontrolled as they have difficulty managing anger as they were not provided with proper guidance. They have poor self-esteem, which further reinforces their inability to make decisions.[2] Strict parental rules and punishments often influence the child to rebel against authority figures as they grow older. Authoritative Parenting This type of parent normally develops a close, nurturing relationship with their children. They have clear guidelines for their expectations and explain their reasons associated with disciplinary actions. Disciplinary methods are used as a way of support instead of punishment. Not only can children have input into goals and expectations, but there are also frequent and appropriate levels of communication between the parent and their child. In general, this parenting style leads to the healthiest outcomes for children but requires a lot of patience and effort on both parties. Authoritative parenting results in children who are confident, responsible, and able to self- regulate.[1][3] They can manage their negative emotions more effectively, which leads to better social outcomes and emotional health. Since these parents also encourage independence, their children will learn that they are capable of accomplishing goals on their own. This results in children who grow up with higher self-esteem. Also, these children have a high level of academic achievement and school performance.[4]

Permissive Parenting Permissive parents tend to be warm, nurturing and usually have minimal or no expectations. They impose limited rules on their children. Communication remains open, but parents allow their children to figure things out for themselves. These low levels of expectation usually result in rare uses of discipline. They act more like friends than parents. Limited rules can lead to children with unhealthy eating habits, especially regarding snacks.[5] This can result in increased risks for obesity and other health problems later in the child’s life. The child also has a lot of freedom as they decide their bedtime, if or when to do homework, and screen time with the computer and television.[6] Freedom to this degree can lead to other negative habits as the parent does not provide much guidance on moderation. Overall, children of permissive parents usually have some self-esteem and decent social skills. However, they can be impulsive, demanding, selfish, and lack self- regulation.[7][8] Uninvolved Parenting Children are given a lot of freedom as this type of parent normally stays out of the way. They fulfill the child’s basic needs while generally remaining detached from their child’s life. An uninvolved parent does not utilize a particular disciplining style and has a limited amount of communication with their child. They tend to offer a low amount of nurturing while having either few or no expectations of their children.

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The children of uninvolved parents usually are resilient and may even be more self-sufficient than children with other types of upbringing. However, these skills are developed out of necessity. Additionally, they might have trouble controlling their emotions, less effective coping strategies, may have academic challenges, and difficulty with maintaining or nurturing social relationships.[9][10] Go to: Clinical Significance Characteristics of a parent’s upbringing style may continue to be prevalent in the child’s behaviors and actions as they age. As a child grows older, they can be affected by other factors that further shape their conduct or possibly change it entirely (i.e., therapy, culture, job, and social circle). With regards to health outcomes, it is important to identify which areas of concern are related to the upbringing style of a patient’s parents (i.e., the habit of unmonitored snacking) and address the issues at that level. These issues become relatively more important when it comes to behavioral/ psychological intervention. Becoming culturally competent whenever possible is a great asset for providers who take care of pediatric patients. Understanding the family background, how rules are set, and discipline styles will allow the clinician to understand the dynamics of the family unit. Once the provider is familiarized with the parental rearing techniques, identifying, managing, or referring families will be an easier task. While citing and quoting the above references; write the following homework assignment on the topic “Parenting influence” given the following prompt;

As a mental health worker, it is essential to identify the determinants of parenting and the impact of those determinants on children’s outcomes. This assignment will help you learn this concept. Citing two to four scholarly sources, answer the following: Parenting Styles Explain what is meant by parental establishment of trajectories. (75 words) Describe some of the trajectories that were present in your home as a child. How did these influence your development? (100 words) Explain how parental decision-making promotes and establishes trajectories. (150 words) List four of the determinants listed in the textbook: 1. 2. 3. 4. Select two of the four listed. Explain how they interrelate. (75 words) Minimum of 400 words.

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