CPSY102 - 4

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Psychology

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Nov 24, 2024

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CPSY102 – 4 Structuralism - Problems o Even highly trained introspectionists often disagreed on their subjective reports o German psychologist Oswald Kulpe showed that people asked to solve certain mental problems engage in imageless thought: thinking unaccompanied by conscious experience - Correctly emphasized the importance of systematic observation to the study of conscious experience Great Debates of Psychology - The Nature-Nurture Debate o Poses following question: are our behaviours attributable mostly to our genes (nature) or to our rearing environments? o Controversial in the domains of intelligence, personality, and psychopathology o John Locke – mind is a blank slate (tabula rasa) – exclusively shaped by our environments o Later shown that most important psychological traits, including intelligence, interests, personality, and many mental illnesses, are influenced substantially by genes o Currently just about everyone now agrees that both genes and environment play crucial roles in most human behaviours – some have declared nature-nurture debate dead o Evolutionary Psychology  A discipline that began in the 1970s and applies Darwin’s theory of natural selection to human and animal behaviour  Darwin and his followers suggested that natural selection favoured certain kinds of mental traits, like language, just as it did physical ones, such as livers and hearts - The Free Will-Determinism Debate o Poses the following question: to what extent are our behaviours freely selected rather than caused by factors outside of our control? How Psychology Affects Our Lives - Basic research examines how the mind works, whereas applied research examines how we can use basic research to solve real-world problems 1.3b - Occam’s razor, named after philosopher and monk Sir William of Occam, is also called the principle of parsimony (parsimony means “logical simplicity) o If two explanations account equally well for a phenomenon, we should generally select the more parsimonious one 1.4b Describe different types of psychologists and identify what each of them does - Clinical and counselling psychologists often conduct therapy - School psychologists develop intervention programs for children in school settings - Industrial/organizational psychologists often work in companies and business and are involved in maximizing employee performance

- Forensic psychologists work in prison or court settings - Many other psychologists conduct research 1.4d Describe how psychological research affects our daily lives - Psychological research has shown how psychology can be applied to such diverse fields as advertising, public safety, the criminal justice system, and education Chapter 2 – Research Methods 1.1 – The Beauty and Necessity of Good Research Design Why we need research designs - Ex. prefrontal lobotomy – thought to be an effective treatment for schizophrenia, as well as other severe mental disorders – conducted systematic research, believers in this treatment assumed that their clinical observations “I can see that it works” – were sufficient evidence for this treatment’s effectiveness – later tested to determine this treatment does not work – changes patient behaviour but does not get rid of schizophrenia effects like hearing voices etc. How we can be fooled: Two modes of thinking - A key finding in the past few decades of research is that the same psychological processes that serve us well in most situations also predispose us to errors in thinking - The first mode of thinking was popularized by journalist Malcolm Gladwell in his 2005 book, Blink, which pointed out that our first impressions are at times surprisingly accurate o This type of thinking is quick and reflexive, and its output consists of “gut hunches” – also doesn’t require much mental effort – referred to as System 1 by Daniel Kahneman – we call it “intuitive” thinking - Second mode of thinking called system 2, we call it “analytical” thinking o Slow and reflexive, takes mental effort – engage in it whenever we are trying to reason through a problem, or figure out a complicated concept o Analytical thinking allows us to override intuitive thinking and reject our gut hunches when they seem to be wrong - When we acquire complex habits or skills, we often start off with analytical thinking and gradually progress to intuitive thinking o Ex. learning to drive – initially demanding and requires analytical thinking – then moves to more intuitive thinking - Intuitive thinking often involves the use of heuristics, which are mental shortcuts or rules of thumb – often leads us to make mistakes because our gut hunches and snap judgements aren’t always right 1.2 – The Scientific Method: Toolbox of Skills - Science can be viewed as a toolbox of finely honed, although imperfect, skills designed to counteract our tendency to fool ourselves Some guiding principles for applying the scientific method to psychology - Random Selection: The Key to Generalizability

o One key approach that modern psychologists use to increase generalizability is to identify a representative sample of the population and administer a survey to people drawn from that sample o This approach is called random selection – in random selection, every person in the population has an equal chance of being chosen to participate – crucial if we want to generalize our results to the broader population o Although surveying more rather than fewer people seems like it would be more generalizable, obtaining a smaller random sample actually tends to be more accurate - Evaluating Measures o When evaluating the results from any dependent variable or measure, we need to ask 2 crucial questions:  Is our measure reliable?  Is it valid? o Reliability refers to consistency of measurement  Ex. a reliable questionnaire should yield similar scores over time – called test-retest reliability o Reliability also applies to interviews and observational data – interrater reliability is the extent to which different people who conduct an interview, or make behavioural observations, agree on the characteristics they’re measuring  Ex. If two psychologists diagnose the same patients with different things, one diagnoses all with schizophrenia and the other diagnoses all with depression, then their interrater reliability will be low o Validity, in contrast, is the extent to which a measure assesses what it claims to measure – can think of validity as “truth in advertising” o Reliability and validity are different concepts, although people routinely confuse them o Reliability is necessary for validity because we need to measure something consistently before we can measure it well o Reliability does not guarantee validity – although a test must be reliable to be valid, a reliable test can be completely invalid Openness and Transparency in Science - No matter how fascinating, ground-breaking, and compelling initial discoveries strike us, before we embrace them with the highest level of confidence an essential requirement is that they prove to be replicable and reproducible - Replicability refers to the ability to duplicate the original findings consistently, whereas reproducibility refers to the ability to review and reanalyze the data from a study and find exactly the same results - Replicability involves collecting new data from new participants, whereas reproducibility involves repeating the same statistical analysis on already-collected data - Open science movement was inspired by failures to confirm a number of high-profile findings in what’s come to be known as a “replicability crisis” - Researchers have started to do the following: o Post and share research materials and datasets in publicly accessible research archives, inviting other researchers to reanalyze their data to ensure

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reproducibility and to explore whether different kinds of analyses illuminate hidden patterns Conduct replications of their own and others’ work before moving on to new question. This strategy has already yielded interesting discoveries about ways that

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