Study Guide 3web(2)
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Review and Study Guide #3
Please note as previously mentioned, the quizzes and exams cover both what is in the readings as well as
what is discussed in class. This review and study guide will be useful as you prepare for the third quiz as
well as for the final exam. Feel free to study together, but the quiz and exam will be taken individually
without using notes or the book.
The Cosmological Argument
1)
What do different versions of the cosmological argument hold in common with each other?
- The
Universe has a beginning. The beginning of the Universe was caused and caused by a personal
being.
2)
Be able to recognize the steps in the argument from contingency and how it doesn’t depend on there
being a beginning of the universe.
- Everything that exists has an explanation of its existence, either
in the necessity of its own nature or in an external cause. If the universe has an explanation of its
existence, that explanation is God.
1)
Understand the two versions of the Kalam Cosmological Argument that we considered.
- Moreland's
version: 1. The universe had a beginning. 2. The beginning of the universe was caused. 3. The cause
of the universe was personal. W. L. Craig's version: 1. Whatever begins to exist has a cause for its
existence. 2. The universe began to exist. 3. Therefore, the universe had a cause for its existence.
2)
Understand what a set is, a proper subset, a potential infinite, and an actual infinite.
- A set is a
collection of objects. A proper subset is a set that is part of a larger set. An actual infinite is a set with
an infinite number of members. A potential infinite is a finite set whose size can be increased without
limit.
3)
Understand how it is argued that an actual infinite cannot exist in reality and how this is used to
show that the universe had a beginning.
- If the universe had no beginning, then the past consists of
an actually infinite number of temporal moments. Mathematical usefulness isn't sufficient to draw
conclusions about the way the world is.
4)
Understand how it is argued that it would be impossible to cross an actually infinite number of steps
and how this is used to show that the universe had a beginning.
- It is impossible to traverse an
actually infinite series via successive addition. The past cannot consist of an actually infinite series of
events.
5)
Have a basic understanding of the standard big bang model and what it indicates about the beginning
of the universe.
- All of matter and energy, and even space and time itself, had a beginning in the
finite past.
6)
What is the second law of thermodynamics?
- A statement about the nature and limits of energy
conversion and transfer in isolated systems.
7)
What is the argument for a beginning of the universe from the second law of thermodynamics?
- We
have strong scientific evidence that the universe, including its mass and energy, is finite.
8)
Understand the principles that support the idea that the beginning of the universe was caused.
-
Everything that begins to exist has a cause for its existence. Something cannot come from nothing
without a cause.
9)
What properties did we discuss that the cause of the universe must have?
- Changeless, immaterial,
and personal.
10)
Understand the three arguments for why the cause of the universe must be personal.
- A first state of
the universe cannot have a scientific explanation since there is nothing before it; it must have a
personal explanation. The personhood of the cause is implied by its timelessness and immateriality
since the only entities with such properties are either minds or abstract objects, and abstract objects
do not cause anything. The only way for the cause to be timeless and changeless but for its effect to
originate anew a finite time ago is for the cause to be a personal agent who freely chooses to bring
about an effect without prior determining conditions.
The Teleological Argument
1)
What are teleological arguments based on?
- There are instances of design or purposes in the natural
world.
2)
Understand what fine-tuning is and be able to recognize examples of it.
- A parameter of physics is
fine-tuned if the range of values of the parameter that is life-permitting is very small.
3)
What is the prime principle of confirmation, or the likelihood principle?
- Whenever we consider
two competing hypotheses, an observation counts as evidence in favor of the hypothesis under which
the observation has the highest probability. The fine-tuning data provides strong evidence to favor
the design hypothesis over the atheistic single-universe hypothesis.
4)
Understand the main (first) response to the objection to the fine-tuning argument that there could be
other forms of life.
- Many constants do not assume a particular form of life.
Attempts have been made to find other forms without success.
5)
What response was considered to the objection that perhaps life could be radically different than we
know it to be, in a universe with radically different laws?
- This is irrelevant to the argument. The
claim refers to a local group of possible universes. Also, astrophysicists have not come up with any
hypothetical universes that are very different than ours and could support any conceivable kind of
(physical) complex life.
6)
What did Collins say in response to the objection that since we are here, we shouldn’t be surprised to
see the universe as it is?
- It is true that: if observers come to exist within a universe and observe its
fundamental constants, it is highly probable that they will see them to be fine-tuned to their
existence. But it is false that: it is highly probable that a universe exists which is fine-tuned for the
existence of observers.
7)
Understand the principle of indifference that Collins discussed and why it’s relevant to the finetuning
argument.
- When there's no reason to prefer one value of a parameter over another, we should
assign equal probabilities to equal ranges of the parameter.
8)
What is the many-universe hypothesis?
- This is a metaphysical hypothesis that there are infinite
universes, and the natural laws and physical constants vary from one to the next, such that
somewhere our universe would appear by chance alone.
9)
What reasons were considered for preferring the explanation of design over the many-universes
hypothesis?
- First, this is a metaphysical hypothesis. On the basis of general relativity, we will
never be able to detect universes other than our own. It is simpler to posit one cosmic designer to
explain our universe than the vastly or infinitely bloated ontology of the many-universes hypothesis.
10)
What is irreducible complexity?
- Is the argument that certain biological systems with multiple
interacting parts would not function if one of the parts were removed.
The Problem of Evil, Part I
1)
What is the basic problem of evil?
- If an all-loving and all-powerful God exists, it is difficult to
understand why he would permit so much evil in the world.
2)
What’s the distinction between moral evil and so-called natural evil?
- Moral evil: the evil that is the
result of what human beings do to others. Natural evil: suffering that are results from natural causes
in the world.
3)
Understand the distinction between the intellectual and the emotional problem of evil.
- Intellectual
problem of evil: a problem about how to give a rational explanation of the co-existence of God and
evil
• Emotional problem of evil: a problem about how to comfort those who are suffering and how to
dissolve the emotional dislike people have of a God who would permit such evil.
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4)
Understand why the logical version of the problem of evil has been widely considered to be solved.
-
At face value, there is no explicit contradiction between the statement that an omnipotent, omni-
benevolent God exists and the statement that evil exists.
5)
Understand Rowe’s argument from evil for atheism.
- There exist instances of intense suffering that
an omnipotent, omniscient being could have prevented without thereby losing some greater good or
permitting some evil equally bad or worse.
(2) An omniscient, wholly good being would prevent the occurrence of any intense suffering it could
unless it could not do so without thereby losing some greater good or permitting some evil equally
bad or worse. (3) There does not exist an omnipotent, omniscient, wholly good being.
6)
What support does Rowe give for his first premise?
- Perhaps the fawn's suffering could not be
avoided without losing some good or bringing about something equally wrong or worse.
-But it seems more reasonable to believe that the fawn's suffering did not have to occur than it would
be to believe otherwise or to suspend judgment. This seems especially so when we consider not just
this case but all instances of suffering.
7)
Understand the direct versus the indirect attack on the first premise.
- The direct attack: premise (1)
is false because there are excellent goods whose existence is impossible unless suffering is permitted,
such as moral or spiritual development and maintaining human freedom.
The indirect attack: it is reasonable to believe that premise (1) is false because we have excellent
reason to believe God exists.
8)
What is the G.E. Moore Shift?
- Instead of responding to an argument directly by denying one of its
premises, you can instead deny its conclusion and use that to argue against one of the premises.
9)
Understand the type of atheism that Rowe adopts and why.
- Friendly atheism = some theists are
justified in believing that God exists. • Rowe says yes: given that this is a more complex issue,
perhaps the atheist has some reason to think that the theist has made some error along the way, such
that the atheist holds that the grounds for theism are not as telling as the theist is justified in taking
them to be.
The Problem of Evil, Part II
1)
What is the standard view of omnipotence?
- Being all-powerful.
2)
What explanation does van Inwagen give for the origin of evil?
-All evil is ultimately due to turning
away from God and rebelling against Him.
3)
How does van Inwagen explain that we can be free of what is wrong with us?
- He explains that the
old problem of
whether we have free will or whether determinism is true is no longer being
debated.
4)
What responses have been made to the question of why there is suffering due to natural causes?
-
Our ancestors lived without evil; one possible explanation how they were without natural evil: they
possessed certain extra abilities
5)
What explanation does van Inwagen give for why God didn’t just immediately restore His fallen
creatures to their original union with Him?
- It would be impossible for God to do this without
deceiving His creatures
- Also, what would prevent the Fall from immediately happening again?
6)
What explanation does van Inwagen give for why God doesn’t protect His fallen creatures from all
of the worst effects of their separation from Him?
- Again, God would be a deceiver
• We would be victims of an illusion, and our lives would be worse than meaningless: we'd be comic
figures, the butt of a joke
• We'd be so satisfied with our existence that we wouldn't find reason to turn to God, never
recognizing what life apart from God truly is
• God is interested not in overriding our freedom or our being superficial actors, but in helping us
become truly good people
7)
What does van Inwagen offer as possible reasons for why the “age of evil” lasts so long?
- For the
final community of those in union with God to be rather large.
• For this final community to be very diverse, including many from different times and cultures.
• Various important stages in God's plan of being re-united with Him may require certain levels of
social and cultural development.
• Selfish creatures like us often take a very long time to respond to wise guidance.
8)
What explanation does van Inwagen give for why the innocent sometimes suffer and the wicked
prosper?
- Suffering due to moral evil would again be the result of free creatures causing others to
suffer - for suffering due to natural causes: as explained earlier, it may just be that in separating
ourselves from God, we have deprived ourselves of our original defenses against potentially
destructive forces, and we cannot expect those effects to be distributed in a particular way.
9)
What were the last three responses we considered to the argument that the evil in the world makes
God’s existence improbable?
- If God does not exist, then objective moral values would not exist.
2. Evil exists. (supplied by the problem of evil)
3. Therefore, objective moral values exist. (from 2 by the definition of evil)
Therefore, God exists
Debate
Understand the eight arguments Craig presented for theism.
- The first argument Craig presents for
theism
#1 Why anything at all exists 1. Every contingent thing has an explanation of its existence. 2. If the
universe has an explanation of its existence, that explanation is a transcendent, personal being. 3. The
universe is a contingent thing. 4. Therefore, the universe has an explanation of its existence. (from 1, 3)
5. Therefore, the explanation of the universe is a transcendent, personal being.
The Second Craig argument
#2 The origin of the universe 1. The universe began to exist. 2. If the universe began to exist, then the
universe has a transcendent cause. 3. Therefore, the universe has a transcendent cause
Third Craig argument
#3 The applicability of mathematics to the physical world 1. If God did not exist, the applicability of
mathematics would be a happy coincidence. 2. The applicability of mathematics is not a happy
coincidence. 3. Therefore, God exists
Fourth Craig argument
#4 The fine-tuning of the universe for intelligent life 1. The fine-tuning of the universe is due to either
physical necessity, chance, or design. 2. It is not due to physical necessity or chance. 3. Therefore, it is
due to design.
Fifth Craig argument
#5 Intentional states of consciousness in the world. 1. If God did not exist, intentional states of
consciousness would not exist. 2. But intentional states of consciousness do exist. 3. Therefore, God
exists
Sixth Craig argument
#6 Objective moral values and duties in the world. 1. Objective moral values and duties exist. 2. But if
God did not exist, objective moral values and duties would not exist. 3. Therefore, God exists
Seventh Craig argument
#7 The historical facts about Jesus of Nazareth 1. There are 3 established facts about Jesus: • his empty
tomb • his post-mortem appearances, and • the origin of the disciples' belief in his resurrection. 2. The
hypothesis "God raised Jesus from the dead" is the best explanation of these facts. 3. The hypothesis
"God raised Jesus from the dead" entails that God exists. 4. Therefore, God exists.
Eighth Craig argument
#8 God can be personally known and experienced.
1)
Understand the argument from evil that Rosenberg made for atheism.
- Faith in God is not reasonable
was the logical version of the problem of evil.
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