Plato, Socrates, and Heraclitus: Key Philosophical Concepts

20/25 that's 80% RETAKE 20 questions were answered correctly. 5 questions were answered incorrectly. 1 According to Plato’s doctrine of the Forms, is Leonardo da Vinci's painting, the Mona Lisa, beauty? Yes, if beauty represents all that is good in Platonic Heaven. Yes, if each individual applies his or her concept of beauty to the painting. No, because it only participates in the Form of Beauty. No, because not everyone agrees that it represents that which is beautiful. RATIONALE Plato's doctrine of the Forms states that the essences of all things, including beauty, exist in Platonic Heaven. Worldly objects are what they are because they participate in their corresponding Form. The Mona Lisa is a beautiful painting because it participates, or imitates, the Form of Beauty. It is not, in itself, beauty. CONCEPT Applying Plato's Metaphysics Report an issue with this question 2 While I have lived in my home, my rent has increased every year.

My salary has remained the same for three years. Next year, I will probably be in a better financial situation. Evaluate the argument and select the option that describes it. Inductive, weak, uncogent Inductive, strong, cogent Deductive, invalid, unsound Deductive, valid, sound RATIONALE Because the inferential claim is of less-than-logical certainty, and is about probability, this is an inductive argument. It is a weak argument because the conclusion isn't probable if the premises are true. It is also an uncogent argument because an argument must be strong to be cogent. CONCEPT Evaluating an Argument in Action Report an issue with this question 3 When Crito tries to convince Socrates that he must not betray his own life, how does Socrates respond?

He says that what is right is often misunderstood by mortals and must be left to the gods. He says that life would not be worth living if the principle of justice was violated. He says that he is not afraid of dying and knows that his followers will restore his good name. He says that all life has value, but society determines the fate of man. RATIONALE In the Crito, Socrates' friend (Crito) tried to convince him to escape and avoid execution. Socrates refused to do so, and explained why escape would be wrong. Socrates asserted that not all life has intrinsic value; only the good life does. Since he believed that he would violate the principle of justice (established by the Social Contract) by avoiding death, Socrates refused to avoid it. CONCEPT The Crito: The Duties of the Social Contract Report an issue with this question 4 “I view the world as a mathematical entity of perfect harmony.” Which ancient philosopher would most likely have made this statement? Anaxagoras

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Pythagoras Xenophanes Protagoras RATIONALE Pythagoras was the Pre-Socratic philosopher who incorporated mathematics into his philosophical worldview. He saw the world as a mathematical entity of perfect harmony, and assigned significance to numbers that occur in nature. CONCEPT Cosmology and the First Philosophers Report an issue with this question 5 Heraclitus developed __________, which maintained that the world is composed of objects and their counterparts, all of which are connected to one another. Heraclitean paradoxes the Unity of Opposites the Doctrine of Flux

Heraclitean metaphysics RATIONALE Heraclitus developed the principle called the Unity of Opposites. It maintains that the world is composed of opposites, and that opposites are linked in a system of connections. This principle is one part of Heraclitean metaphysics. CONCEPT Heraclitus and the Doctrine of Impermanence Report an issue with this question 6 Which of the following statements about Aristotle's metaphysics is FALSE? Aristotle defined a particular as “a this” to distinguish it from a universal. The first philosophy for Aristotle was ontology, which examines the nature of being. For Aristotle, existence requires matter and form— not one or the other, but both. Aristotle's ultimate conclusion was that the nature of reality was change. RATIONALE Aristotle would agree with all of these statements except the suggestion that the nature of reality is change. To Aristotle, reality is what we can observe. It can be described as a substance and a way of being, or matter and form.

CONCEPT Aristotle on What There Is Report an issue with this question 7 Choose the example that best demonstrates a central tenet of Stoicism. Carlene is devastated when her outdoor party is interrupted by a thunderstorm. Mr. Donovan insists that he begin each morning with pastry and a cup of sweet tea. Stephanie is a good nurse because she is skillful and always remains composed. Bob is such a rabid Cubs fan that it isn’t fun to watch a baseball game with him. RATIONALE Stoicism is a philosophy that encourages people to focus only on what they can control (e.g., their desires, emotions, and reactions). Because Stoicism focuses on eliminating desires, and emphasizes control of emotions, it leads people to perform their assigned jobs (or roles) skillfully and dispassionately. CONCEPT Stoicism: The Ethics of Dispassion Report an issue with this question 8

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Which of the following statements about the metaphysical tenets of Plato’s Doctrine of the Forms is FALSE? There is no knowledge because everything is in a state of transition and nothing is true. The intellectual realm in which the Forms exist is unchanging and eternal. Plato’s Doctrine of the Forms grounds knowledge and being. Worldly objects imitate the more real, genuine Forms of objects. RATIONALE The statement that "There is no knowledge because everything is in a state of transition and nothing is true" is the opposite of Plato's metaphysical beliefs. His Doctrine of the Forms argues that all worldly objects are related to their essences (i.e., Forms), which are real, unchanging, perfect entities that exist in an intellectual realm called Platonic Heaven. The Forms provide the basis for all knowledge. CONCEPT Plato's Forms: The Foundations of Being Report an issue with this question 9 According to Socrates in the Phaedo, why might death be an advantage to the philosopher? In life, the Social Contract requires people to behave according to the needs and wants of others.

Death is the ultimate distinction between knowledge and opinion. Eyes, ears, and other bodily organs can distract one from the attainment of truth and knowledge. Only humans can seek knowledge and truth, but their ability to do so ends with death. RATIONALE The Phaedo is a conversation between Socrates and his students about death. It takes place just before his execution. During this conversation, Socrates explains why philosophers should not fear death, which he defines as the end of the life of the body, but not of the soul. Socrates views the body as an impediment to the acquisition of wisdom and truth. Therefore, a philosopher may be able to find answers after death that cannot be found during life. CONCEPT The Phaedo: The Death of Socrates Report an issue with this question 10 What kind of a thing is an orchid? It is a type of flower. What distinguishes an orchid from other flowers? The female and male parts of an orchid are fused together. According to Aristotle, answering both of these questions reveals the __________ of an orchid. organization genus

ontology essence RATIONALE According to Aristotle, we can discover and describe essences by identifying a genus and a differentia. The genus (in this example, a flower) tells us what kind of thing an orchid is. The differentia tells us what sets an orchid apart from other things of the same kind. CONCEPT Aristotle on What There Is Report an issue with this question 11 Which branch of philosophy examines the basis and nature of knowledge? Ethics Epistemology Metaphysics Cosmology

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RATIONALE Epistemology is the branch of philosophy in which concepts of knowledge are analyzed and defended. Metaphysics is concerned with discovering and describing the ultimate nature of reality. Cosmology is the study of the universe in its totality, and ethics considers concepts of value (e.g., right and wrong). CONCEPT What is Philosophy? Report an issue with this question 12 Read the following statement by Socrates: “In questions of just and unjust, fair and foul, good and evil, which are the subjects of our present consultation, ought we to follow the opinion of the many and to fear them; or the opinion of the one man who has understanding?” Extract Socrates' argument from this text and choose the sentence that accurately reflects it. Any man who cares about ethics and wisdom has an obligation to listen to himself over others. Absolute justice can only be achieved when the state agrees with the opinion of the masses. Non-experts have opinions, but the man who is an expert in a field has true knowledge. He who has experienced the administration of justice will do as the majority commands him to do.

RATIONALE In this selection from the Crito, Socrates argues that we should consult experts (who have "understanding," or knowledge) when we seek wisdom, and not the majority (who have only opinion). CONCEPT The Apology: Socrates' Arguments Report an issue with this question 13 Being a good parent is a __________ condition for having a child. Apply conceptual analysis to this statement and choose the answer that correctly describes the relationship. necessary, not sufficient neither necessary nor sufficient sufficient, not necessary both necessary and sufficient RATIONALE Being a good parent is not a necessary condition, or logical requirement, for having a child because there are people who have children who aren't good parents. In order to be a parent, a person must have a child. That makes being a good parent a sufficient, but not a necessary condition for having a child.

CONCEPT Plato: An Academic Approach to Concepts Report an issue with this question 14 For Plato, the Forms are the __________ foundation of reality, which means that knowledge of reality is grounded in knowledge of the Forms. logical natural ethical metaphysical RATIONALE Plato was interested in abstract concepts (e.g., being and substance). These concepts are the subjects of the field of philosophy known as metaphysics. Plato wanted to know how these concepts exist in reality (i.e., their essences). Therefore, Plato's Forms were his metaphysical notion of the essences that ground the knowledge of reality. CONCEPT Plato's Forms: The Objects of Knowledge Report an issue with this question 15 The philosophical value of the Socratic Method is described in all of the following statements, EXCEPT:

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The emphasis is on finding truth, not on “winning” an argument. The Socratic Method guides students to understanding rather than requiring them to memorize facts. Students answer questions to which they know the answers, and are led by the teacher to new truths. Students learn from interacting with each other, and the teacher facilitates this process. RATIONALE The Socratic Method does not facilitate learning through students' interaction with one another. Rather, it is an exchange between student and teacher, in which the teacher uses the student's knowledge to guide him or her to truth. CONCEPT The Socratic Approach Report an issue with this question 16 In the Apology, Socrates states that a good person does what he knows to be right despite __________. the wisdom of the gods negative personal consequences

risking fame and fortune the laws of man RATIONALE The Apology is Plato's transcription of the defense Socrates presented at his trial on charges of "denying the gods" and "corrupting the youth of Athens." In it, Socrates asserts that he does not fear death, because he has lived as he believed was right. To Socrates, it is more important to live rightly than to avoid death and other negative personal consequences. CONCEPT The Apology: A Defense of Philosophy Report an issue with this question 17 Which of the following statements about the atomistic worldview is FALSE? All reality is composed of atoms in a void. Everything that exists is either an atom or a collection of atoms. Atoms come in different shapes and sizes, and can exist in a number of ways. A philosophical atom is the same as a chemical atom.

RATIONALE The atomists believed that everything that exists is either an atom, or a collection of atoms. They also believed that all matter and phenomena are the result of different configurations of atoms of different shapes and sizes. However, a philosophical atom is not the same as a chemical atom. To the atomists, a philosophical atom was an indivisible entity. Chemical atoms, as science has demonstrated, can be divided into smaller parts. CONCEPT The Atomistic Worldview Report an issue with this question 18 Kendra believes that women have a right to choose to have an abortion. Select the statement that is consistent with Kendra's belief. "The man should have an equal say in whether or not a woman ends her pregnancy.” “I voted for this presidential candidate because she supports a woman's right to have an abortion.” “Every woman should be a mother; it is our function and purpose as human beings.” “Some women use abortion as a form of birth control, which is wrong.” RATIONALE

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To live philosophically, a person must examine his or her beliefs to ground them in knowledge, and then act according to those beliefs. By voting for a presidential candidate who supports a woman's right to have an abortion, Kendra displays a consistent philosophical worldview. CONCEPT Philosophical Analysis as a Way of Life Report an issue with this question 19 Kenny is a chef who is trying to determine how carefully he should focus on details while doing his job. He wants to avoid being too detail-oriented because it would be inefficient for him to do so. However, if he doesn't pay enough attention to details, the quality of the food he prepares will be inconsistent. According to Aristotle’s ethics, this is an example of the __________. Doctrine of the Mean Doctrine of the Forms Function Argument Ethics of Virtue RATIONALE Aristotle's Doctrine of the Mean states that virtue must be cultivated as a rational mean between extremes. Kenny's efforts to find the correct level of detail-focus to succeed in his job illustrates this doctrine.

CONCEPT Aristotle's Highest Good Report an issue with this question 20 Recall the similarities and differences between Plato and Aristotle's philosophical approaches. Select the statement that would most likely have been made by Plato, rather than by Aristotle. “I teach by example and I live by what I teach, no matter the consequences.” “My ideas have served as a starting point for both philosophy and the physical sciences.” “In order to find truth, we must first identify what makes a thing what it is, its essence. “My approach is scientific and empirical; we learn about truth from observation and discovery.” RATIONALE Plato proposed the existence of essences in his doctrine of the Forms. As a result, it is more likely that he would have made this statement. As a rationalist philosopher, Plato believed that knowledge does not rely on human senses alone, and can be accessed through the existence of essences. The statements which involve science and empiricism are reflective of Aristotle's views. The statement about teaching and living by example is reflective of Socrates' philosophy. CONCEPT Aristotle: The Dissection of Reality Report an issue with this question

21 According to Aristotle’s ethics, virtues should be pursued by __________. defining what is true thinking abstractly determining the purest form of action finding a rational mean between two extremes RATIONALE Aristotle's Doctrine of the Mean states that virtue must be cultivated as a rational mean between extremes. For example, the virtue of courage is found between the vices of cowardice and foolhardiness. CONCEPT Aristotle's Highest Good Report an issue with this question 22 Socrates differed from the pre-Socratics in that his interests were primarily in __________. how the universe works

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ethics and epistemology cosmology and natural philosophy the true nature of reality RATIONALE The focus of Socrates' philosophy was different from that of the Pre-Socratic philosophers. He investigated questions involving ethics and epistemology. The Pre-Socratic philosophers had focused on natural philosophy and cosmology. CONCEPT Socrates: The Father of Western Philosophy Report an issue with this question 23 Choose the statement that both Plato and Aristotle would agree is true. “The ideals of Beauty and Truth are not of this world.” “The physical sciences are a source of eternal knowledge." “Ideals are similar to mathematical objects or entities.”

“A human being is 'human' because he or she reflects the Form of a Human.” RATIONALE Plato and Aristotle disagreed on all of these points except for the position that a human being is "human" because he or she reflects the Form of a Human. Although they also disagreed on where essences were located, Plato and Aristotle were both metaphysicians who believed that essences, or Forms, were real entities that existed and provided the basis for truth and knowledge. CONCEPT Plato vs. Aristotle: The Mathematician or the Biologist Report an issue with this question 24 All of the following statements are central themes of Parmenidean metaphysics, EXCEPT: Complex phenomena can be explained as having been caused by the gods. Reasonable assumptions can lead to paradoxes. All change is illusory. This worldview transcends opinion to examine the world as it is. RATIONALE Parmenides was a Pre-Socratic philosopher. He sought answers to questions about the universe that did not involve the gods or other supernatural forces. His philosophical explanations (like those of other Pre- Socratics) was naturalistic. All of the other statements accurately represent Parmenidean metaphysics.

CONCEPT Parmenides and the Doctrine of Permanence Report an issue with this question 25 A Stoic avoids looking for good in external things and recognizes that value __________. can be found in every living entity has little to do with ethics is determined by intrinsic personality traits lies in our judgment of the world

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