PHIL 1100.edited

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PHIL 1100 FINAL EXAMINATION

SECTION A A1. Morality and kindness are related but separate human traits. Morality is a set of rules for right and wrong, justice and injustice. It underpins ethical decision-making and goes beyond compassion. Kindness, on the other hand, involves compassion, empathy, and generosity. It promotes people's well-being without ulterior motives. Kindness doesn't define morality, but it may convey it. Fairness, honesty, and justice are part of morality, but they don't necessarily connect to compassion. Kindness is considered a moral virtue, hence morality and kindness are linked (Harold, 2020) . Morality helps create a fair and peaceful community by encouraging kindness. An action might be ethically right without being compassionate. For instance, holding someone responsible for their behavior may not be polite, but it's ethically just. Kindness is a moral virtue that promotes others' well-being and respect. They are related yet cover different elements of human behavior and morality. A2. Socrates, an ancient Greek philosopher, believed that using examples, even archetypal ones, to describe abstract concepts like holiness was insufficient. His philosophical style was Socratic discussions to explore fundamental ideas. Socrates said examples don't explain a concept (Hansen, Francis, and Greening, 2022) . Like other abstract conceptions, holiness is essential. Since examples don't reflect the concept's underlying principles and key qualities, they might mislead. Dialectics helped Socrates identify universal truths. He believed that understanding ideas involves grasping their principles, investigating their relationships, and questioning prejudices. Socrates utilized a back-and-forth discussion to explain ideas. Socrates would have pursued the substance of what makes an action or trait holy rather than settling with examples that may not capture the whole meaning. It promotes critical thinking, and understanding, and avoids oversimplification. A3. Science's pragmatic, empirical methodology and non-reflective orientation are connected to its pursuit of truth. Science uses methodical observation, testing, and data analysis to find objective facts about the natural world, unlike "The Thinker" statue (Nelimarkka, 2022) . "The Thinker" by Auguste Rodin symbolizes intellectual contemplation. Science's non-reflective character promotes active contact with the world and practical data above abstract cognition. Science seeks empirical truth, which is based on observable and quantifiable occurrences. This reality is based on scientifically verifiable data. Science's pragmatic approach stresses discoveries that can be implemented and predictions that can be tested. Science's non-

reflection supports objectivity and factual truth. Scientific processes reduce biases and subjective judgments. Scientific truth is its capacity to explain and predict observed occurrences. The non-reflective aspect of science ensures impartiality, reproducibility, and pragmatism in seeking factual facts. This method helps us comprehend the natural world methodically and dependably since it follows science's core principles. A6. René Descartes sought clarity amidst confusion. His thought relied on indisputable facts. Descartes may have been conflicted by Judge Skilnik's statement that criminal conviction doesn't need complete certainty. Descartes's assurance standards may conflict with Judge Skilnik's statement. Descartes cherished certainty (Fashler, 2020) . He may claim that the court system's acceptance of less-than-perfect certainty may result in errors, biased judgments, or blunders. Descartes may fear that skepticism may ruin unsupported beliefs. He may argue for more legal clarity and doubt to defend justice and prevent wrongful convictions. Descartes, a rationalist, recognized human knowledge's practical limits. He may realize that human interactions and faulty knowledge make absolute certainty impossible in practical matters like judicial processes. He may advocate for more certainty while emphasizing the necessity of rigorous evidence and strong reasoning inside the legal system. Descartes would undoubtedly recognize the necessity of certainty in legal circumstances but also the need to reconcile this with human knowledge's limits and the complexity of real-world situations. A8. Simple induction sampling methods are non-biased if they provide every population member with an equal and non-zero probability of being sampled (Berndt, 2020) . When the sampling procedure doesn't favor some components over others, bias is removed and the sample is representative of the population. Non-biased sampling reduces systematic mistakes that might distort or mislead results. Non-biased sampling is similar to representative sampling. Representative samples properly reflect the population's traits and variety. Non- biased sampling methods enhance the chance of a representative sample by not favoring any subgroup of the population. A representative sample is essential for meaningful population generalizations. Biased sampling may not apply to the population. Inductive conclusions need a non-biased, representative sample. The sample is more likely to accurately reflect the population since the sampling procedure is bias-free. This supports the sample.

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SECTION B B2. The context and interpretation of a magical event distinguish it from a miracle. Supernatural forces, occult activities, and mystical abilities are frequently connected with magical events (Issitt, 2020) . These events are often represented in folklore, mythology, and fantasy. Miracles, on the other hand, are supernatural phenomena ascribed to God. They're typically seen as divine interventions. Miracles are often used in religious writings like the Bible to demonstrate supernatural might or compassion. The Bible's descriptions of Jesus walking on water and feeding a crowd with a modest quantity of food are religious marvels. Christians see these events as proof of Jesus' divinity and capacity to transcend the physical realm. These miracles symbolize trust and Jesus' message. Scientific explanations for miracles can differ from their literal readings. Natural explanations include optical illusions and metaphorical interpretations. It's vital to remember that interpretations vary considerably dependent on different views, ranging from real happenings to metaphorical tales with deeper spiritual connotations. The cultural, theological, and spiritual circumstances and people's perceptions and beliefs distinguish magical happenings from miracles. B3. The first Cosmological Argument, devised by Thomas Aquinas, employs causality to argue for the presence of a necessary, uncaused First Cause or Prime Mover that started the universe's chain of causes. Magic might weaken the argument's logic if Aquinas accepts it. The contrast between efficient and instrumental causes underpins Aquinas' reasoning (Dasgupta, 2021) . Efficient causes directly create an effect, whereas instrumental causes are intermediate systems or instruments. Aquinas claims that a First Cause must have started the chain of efficient causes. Aquinas must separate magic from efficient causality if he accepts it. Magic is the use of supernatural or occult powers to attain goals that could be an efficient cause. Magic might undermine Aquinas' idea of an uncaused, transcendent First Cause. Aquinas' perspective on miracles may assist him differentiate. Aquinas describes miracles as supernatural phenomena caused by divine intervention. Miracles, unlike sorcery, are God's divine force working for his purposes. Miracles, which are supernatural interventions in the natural order, do not contradict Aquinas' cosmological reasoning. Magic might contradict Aquinas' cosmological argument by offering an alternate explanation for the cause. He distinguishes miracles from magic to preserve his argument's framework by attributing miracles to supernatural intervention rather than physical causes.

B4. Thomas Aquinas believed that kicking a ball does not make it miraculous. Miracles are divinely induced phenomena in Aquinas' view. He would ascribe the ball's motion to causation and physics (Cummings, 2021) . The ball's motion, according to Aquinas, is guided by God's rules of nature. Cause-and-effect rules govern physical things' behavior. Newtonian physics describes the transmission of kinetic energy from your foot to the ball when you kick a ball. Aquinas believed a miracle required supernatural intervention to suspend or change these natural rules. It would be astonishing if the ball changed course mid-air without any obvious explanation. Aquinas believes that kicking a ball causes normal cause-and-effect connections, not miracles. He defines a miracle as a heavenly intervention that breaks the rules of nature. Thus, the typical motion of a kicked ball, following physics, is not extraordinary in his worldview. B6. Aquinas' First Way (part of his Five Ways argument for God's existence) is hampered by simultaneous effects and causes. Aquinas argues that the universe's causes must begin with an uncaused First Cause. Simultaneous causes and consequences violate his linear chain of causality (Kruger, 2023) . The simultaneous appearance of cause and effect is a technical concern for Aquinas. His thesis is based on a hierarchical succession of causes that progress linearly. However, he agrees that causes and consequences may occur simultaneously. Aquinas' reasoning doesn't alter if simultaneous causes and effects are corrected. Aquinas emphasizes the requirement for a First Cause to start the causal chain. Even though causes and effects may occur concurrently, there must be a Prime Mover that initiates the causal process. Incorporating the notion of simultaneous causes and consequences may force Aquinas to clarify his vocabulary or somewhat alter his reasoning. Even with simultaneous causation, the First Way's essential point—the need for an uncaused First Cause—remains. B8. Elliott Sober argues that the Principle of Sufficient Reason (PSR) is essential to human reasoning and understanding. Humans inherently seek explanations for events, occurrences, and facts, and the PSR offers a framework for this (Cabrera, 2023) . Scientific research relies on the PSR to find causes, processes, and explanations, according to Sober.

Some opponents say Sober's support of the PSR is too weak since it focuses on pragmatic advantages rather than philosophical explanations. The PSR holds that everything has a cause, however, justifying this concept is difficult. Sober's focus on the PSR's pragmatic significance in science doesn't address metaphysical or epistemological problems. The PSR has been criticized for being self-evident, explaining contingent facts, and being compatible with quantum physics and indeterminacy. Sober's reply doesn't address these problems or address the PSR's deeper philosophical issues.

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Reference Berndt, A.E., 2020. Sampling methods. Journal of Human Lactation , 36 (2), pp.224-226. Cabrera, F., 2022. Inference to the Best Explanation: An Overview. Handbook of Abductive Cognition , pp.1-34. Cummings, O.F., 2021. Miracles in the Christian Tradition . Paulist Press. Dasgupta, A., 2021. Magical Epistemologies: Forms of Knowledge in Early Modern English Drama . Routledge. Fashler, S.R., 2020. Validation of the Sensitivity to Pain Traumatization Scale. Hansen, N., Francis, K.B. and Greening, H., 2022. Socratic questionnaires. Harold, J., 2020. Dangerous Art: on moral criticisms of artwork . Oxford University Press, USA. Issitt, J.A., 2020. Performing Miracles: The real magic behind the performance . Lancaster University (United Kingdom). Kruger, M.C., 2023. Zhuangzi and Aquinas on Simultaneous Emotions. Dao , pp.1-24. Nelimarkka, M., 2022. Computational Thinking and Social Science: Combining Programming, Methodologies, and Fundamental Concepts. Computational Thinking and Social Science , pp.1-100.

PHIL 1100.edited

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