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MKTG 3481
Marketing Research
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Table of Contents
Module 1: Introduction to Marketing Research and Research Design .......................
1
Module 2: Exploratory Research .......................................................................................
29
Module 3: Descriptive Research .......................................................................................
46
Module 4: Scaling ................................................................................................................
60
Module 5: Sampling ............................................................................................................
76
Module 6: Data Analysis and Reporting .........................................................................
92
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The content of this course material is the property of Thompson Rivers University (TRU) and is protected by copyright law worldwide. This material may be used by students enrolled at TRU for personal study purposes only. No part of this work may be forwarded or reproduced in any form by any means without permission in writing from the Intellectual Property Office, Thompson Rivers University, copyright@tru.ca
. TRU seeks to ensure that any course content that is owned by others has been appropriately cleared for use in this course. Anyone wishing to make additional use of such third party material must obtain clearance from the copyright holder. Course Revision Team, 201
8
Course Reviser: Rosalie Hilde, DBA, MBA, BA Course Editor: Mona Hall, EdCert Associate Dean, Business and Economics: Raymond Cox, PhD, MBA, BComm, BSc, CPA, CGA, CFA, CMA, CCM Course Development Team
Course Writers: Angela Kelleher, MBA, BComm Course Reviser: Rosalie Hilde, DBA, MBA, BA Instructional Designer: Gail Morong, MEd, BSc Course Editor: Naomi Cloutier, MA Course Editor: Dawn-Louise McLeod, MEd, BA Thompson Rivers University 805 TRU Way Kamloops, BC, V2C 0C8
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MKTG 3481: Marketing Research 1 TRU Open Learning Module 1: Introduction to Marketing Research and Research Design Overview Module 1 is all about starting a marketing research project off right by understanding the marketing research process and its role in marketing decision making and by carefully defining the problem and developing the best research design. Marketing research is extremely important in helping companies establish and grow their business, but very often, that research is not designed or executed well. Companies make poor choices based on that bad information, and they fail. Have you ever had the experience of not getting the information you wanted because you asked the wrong questions? Or, perhaps you have asked the right questions, but not the right people, so the answer you received was not accurate. In this course, you will have the opportunity to learn how to ask “good” questions and find valuable information that will help your organization achieve success. In order to remain competitive, an organization is required to make business decisions on an ongoing basis. Specifically in marketing, these decisions involve the Four Ps (product, price, promotion, and place) of the marketing mix, and they may be related to new product introductions or to existing products. For example, on the issue of pricing
, companies may want to know:
What is the best price at which to introduce a new product?
How much can you increase the price of an existing product?
Are there customer segments that would be willing to pay a higher price? Take a moment to reflect on what kinds of questions might be asked about the other three Ps. These questions are typical management decision questions that managers would ask. In an ideal world, all the decisions a manager makes would be perfect. However, this is not realistic; perfect decisions would require perfect information, and that is rarely available. Your role as a market researcher is to provide assistance in the decision-making process by helping decision makers get as close to perfect information as your organization can afford both in time and in money. Your role may be to actually collect and analyze the data yourself, or you may contract a professional marketing research firm to collect and analyze the data for you. In either case, it is imperative for you to understand the basic process of marketing research.
2 Module 1: Introduction to Marketing Research and Research Design TRU Open Learning Module 1 Topics Module 1 covers seven topics:
Topic 1: The Definition of Marketing Research
Topic 2: The Marketing Research Process
Topic 3: Marketing Research and Marketing Decision Making
Topic 4: The Importance of Defining the Problem
Topic 5: The Management-Decision Problem and the Marketing Research Problem
Topic 6: Research Approach, Questions, and Hypothesis
Topic 7: Basic Research Design and the Types of Research Topic 1
introduces you to marketing research. In Topic 2
, you will establish a basic understanding of the process of marketing research. In Topic 3
, you will differentiate between “good” information and “bad” information and discuss the difference between data and information, then look at the problem definition process, which is both important and complex. In Topic 4
, you will discuss the specific tasks involved in problem definition to ensure that you understand how to complete this step thoroughly. In Topic 5
, you will spend some time looking at the relationship between the management decision problem and the marketing research problem. A solution, no matter how elegant, that does not address the management problem at hand has no value to an organization. In Topic 6
, you will develop research questions and a hypothesis. Here, you will (1) break down the marketing research problem into more specific questions that you want your research to answer, and (2) generate a hypothesis about what you think you might learn about these questions. Topic 7
provides you with an overview of research design. You will briefly review the classification of research designs, the tasks involved in formulating a research design, and the potential sources of errors in research designs. As part of this, you will describe and compare the three basic types of research designs: exploratory, descriptive, and causal.
MKTG 3481: Marketing Research 3 TRU Open Learning Learning Outcomes After you have completed the work in this module, you will be able to:
Explain what marketing research is and give examples of each major element.
Describe the six steps in the marketing research process.
Critique decisions as “good” or “bad” by checking them against good decision-making criteria.
Brainstorm a list of research activities that could be used to address a marketing research problem.
Write a management decision problem and a marketing research problem, and discuss the differences between them.
Compose a list of research questions and a hypothesis for a marketing research project.
Clearly articulate the value in conducting exploratory research to define the research problem.
Explain how all three types of research approaches can be applied to the same research problem, and provide complementary information. Required Resources In addition to the textbook, you will need these resources to work through this module:
Hammond, J., Keeney, R., & Raiffa, H. (1998, September-October). The hidden traps in decision making. Harvard Business Review, 76
(5), 47
–
58. (This article is available online through TRU Library.)
trendwatching.com at http://www.trendwatching.com/trends/
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4 Module 1: Introduction to Marketing Research and Research Design TRU Open Learning URLs for various websites and resources are provided throughout this course. In the event that such a URL is a dead link or content has been removed, search in Google for the title of the resource
—
use quotation marks around the title. If you are still unable to locate the resource, contact your Open Learning Faculty Member. Note Assignments Checkpoint Assignment 1 is due in this module and is worth 5% of your final grade. The goal of this assignment is to help you research and practice APA style of writing, citing, formatting and referencing. Grading for Assignment 1 is based on how well you can master the APA style in writing a research proposal, not on the proposal itself. You will send your Open Learning Faculty Member a research proposal for your subsequent assignments. Your Open Learning Faculty Member must approve this proposal before you can submit further assignments. Research proposal approval is based on your understanding in drafting a good marketing research question. Assignment 6, which is in Module 6, includes a graded assignment in which you are asked to reflect on the highlights of your learning through the activities, including making discussion postings and journalling. Module 1 Activities All of the activities in Module 1 are related to the learning outcomes and prepare you well for success in Assignment 1, subsequent assignments, and the final exam. Remember, activities are not formally graded, but you should find them very useful. The activities are designed to help you develop a full understanding and application of the material. We recommend that you complete the activities in the order that they are listed. If you have any questions about any activities, ask your Open Learning Faculty Member. This gives you the opportunity to resolve any questions and confusion early, so that you can complete your graded work with confidence. Textbook Readings Module 1 covers material from Chapters 1, 2, and 3 of your textbook. Of these three chapters, the most important and the most complex is Chapter 3, so plan to spend more time on it. Make sure you review the summary at the end of the chapter.
MKTG 3481: Marketing Research 5 TRU Open Learning While reading, you may find it helpful to underline or summarize key points to reinforce your understanding. The textbook authors have highlighted key terms and concepts for you and offered definitions in the margins. Key terms, which are important for you to understand, are compiled in a list at the end of each chapter. Reflective Journalling As you progress through this module and the rest of the course, you are encouraged to reflect on your perceptions of marketing research. Keeping a reflective journal is a way of tracking your thoughts about key concepts, synthesizing your learning experience, and helping you to formulate your ideas for the assignments. Record your observations on how the concepts introduced are influencing your perceptions, beliefs, and behaviour as a marketer evaluating the worth of marketing research information for decision-making purposes. Keeping a journal as you work through the course material will provide a rich resource to help you complete the Reflective Summary part of Assignment 6 in which you are asked to reflect upon what you have learned and your participation in the course. Discussions During the course, in some activities, you are asked to post your thoughts, experiences, research, or answers to questions in the Discussions
area and to reply to others’ postings. As
mentioned in the Course Guide, these online discussions are designed to encourage you to be an active member of the community of learners engaged in this course. Make sure your postings are thoughtful and complete. Your Open Learning Faculty Member will closely monitor the Discussions
area. Your Reflective Summary in Assignment 6 will be based not only on your journal but also on your postings. Furthermore, by active participation in discussions (posting and replying to others’ postings), you will form a better understanding of the course content and help you get to know the other students who are in the virtual classroom.
6 Module 1: Introduction to Marketing Research and Research Design TRU Open Learning Note on Discussions:
In this course, students begin at different times and work through the material at their own pace. Thus, you may find that when you go to a discussion topic, there are no postings from other students. Go ahead and make your postings, anyhow
—
there might be other students in the course, and they might read your postings soon. Self-Test One of the activities in this module includes a self-test. There is no time limit for this self-test, and you can complete it as many times as you like. Although your results will not form part of your formal grade, completing and reflecting upon self-tests will be part of your Reflective Summary for the course. Activity and Assessments Checklist We recommend that by the end of this module you complete all activities and assessments in the order listed here: ✓
Complete and check off: Activity 1: Discussion 1.1
—
Introduce Yourself Activity 2: Textbook Reading, Chapter 1 Activity 3: Application of the Marketing Research Definition Activity 4: The Decision-Making Process Activity 5: The Role of Marketing Research in Marketing Decision Making (includes Discussion 1.2) Activity 6: Textbook Reading, Chapter 2 Activity 7: Root Cause Analysis and the Five Whys Activity 8: Management-Decision Problem or Marketing Research Problem (includes Self-Test 1)
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MKTG 3481: Marketing Research 7 TRU Open Learning Activity 9: Textbook Reading, Chapter 3 Activity 10: Exploratory Research Assignment 1: Writing a Research Proposal in APA Style (5%)
8 Module 1: Introduction to Marketing Research and Research Design TRU Open Learning Topic 1: The Definition of Marketing Research Overview In this opening topic, you will take a look at a formal definition of marketing research and also discuss the two main purposes of conducting marketing research. According to the authors of your textbook, marketing research is: The systematic and objective identification, collection, analysis, dissemination, and use of information that is undertaken to improve decision making related to identifying and solving problems (also known as opportunities
) in marketing. (Malhotra, 2012, p. 5) To really understand this wordy definition, let us break it down. First, identification of information
involves defining the business problem at hand, specifically a marketing problem, and listing the information that is required to resolve the issue. Second, collection of data
involves determining whether or not the data already exists or if it needs to be collected. It also includes deciding what is the best method to accumulate the data and from which sources to collect it. Third, analysis of data
involves reviewing the data, through interpretation and inferences. These processes actually transform data into useful information. Fourth, dissemination of information
is a process whereby the findings, implications, and recommendations determined through the analysis are provided to the ultimate decision maker. Fifth, use of information
identifies the stage in which the decision maker may use the information to make a decision and to take action. Figure 1.2 on page 5 of your textbook offers a visual representation of this definition. From the illustration, you can see how the elements in defining marketing research interact with the identification and resolution of marketing problems. Classification of Marketing Research Marketing research can be designed to solve one of two different types of problems. Figure 1.3 on page 7 illustrates this well. The first type of research is problem-identification research
. Here, the goal is to identify existing or potential issues that are not readily apparent. This type of research is most commonly done to support new product development. An example
MKTG 3481: Marketing Research 9 TRU Open Learning of this type of research would be a company spending time conducting quantitative research to segment its market in order to understand what new products its customers might be interested in and what positioning customers would find most attractive. The second type of research is problem-solving research
. This research is aimed at solving specific marketing problems, which are typically related to existing products. An example of this type of research would be testing different advertising slogans with the target market to see which have a stronger appeal. Advertising is an extremely expensive promotional investment, and most companies will invest in testing these ads before they are put into full production and before expensive airtime is purchased. Earlier, you were asked to brainstorm some questions that companies might use marketing research to address relating to product, place, or promotion. Look back on that list now, and identify whether your questions relate to problem identification or problem solving. If you are unsure of any of these, contact your Open Learning Faculty Member and ask for his or her opinion. Activity 1: Discussion 1.1
—
Introduce Yourself Introduction Remember, this course is a continuous intake course, meaning that students start the course at various times and take different lengths of time to complete it. Some of the course activities include online discussions, and you will be asked to post your thoughts, experiences, or answers under a specific discussion topic under Discussions
. This activity will help you get to know the other students who are in the virtual classroom. Instructions
Go to Discussion 1.1
—
Introduce Yourself
.
Read any messages that have already been posted by other students. If there are no other postings yet, go ahead and make your own posting. Visit Discussion 1.1 later to see what others have said about themselves, their work, and their reasons for taking this course.
Post a message about yourself. Tell us about your experience in taking online courses, where you work now, and where you would like to work when you finish the program. Describe why you are taking this course and if there is anything in particular that you want to get out of it. Finally, add a reflection on what you think about marketing research and if you have had much experience either being researched or doing the research on someone else.
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10 Module 1: Introduction to Marketing Research and Research Design TRU Open Learning Activity 2: Textbook Reading, Chapter 1 Introduction This activity provides you an opportunity to read, in your textbook, an introduction to marketing research. Remember that, while reading, you may find it helpful to underline or summarize key points to reinforce your understanding. The textbook authors have highlighted key terms and concepts for you and offered definitions in the margins. The key terms are compiled in a list at the end of each chapter and are important to understand. Instructions Read Chapter 1, “Introduction to Marketing Research.” As you read, keep in mind this chapter’s Learning Objectives 1, 2, and 3 (p. 2). Also, pay attention to the diagrams and analyses of cases, and see how the analyses fit within the context of the chapter as a whole. Activity 3: Application of the Marketing Research Definition Introduction We have briefly introduced the individual elements of the marketing research definition. This activity is intended to reinforce these elements by having you apply your knowledge of these elements to identify each of them in a real marketing research situation. Instructions Part A: Textbook Reading
Read the opening vignette, “How Reebok Fits Shoes,” page 3. While reading, pay particular attention to the elements found in the definition of marketing research. Can you identify these elements in the reading? Part B: In Your Journal
In your journal, create a table similar to the one that follows and identify facts in the vignette that correspond to the elements of marketing research: Element of Marketing Research Supporting Vignette Fact Marketing problem
MKTG 3481: Marketing Research 11 TRU Open Learning Identification of information needed Collection of data Analysis of data Dissemination of results Use of information in decision making
12 Module 1: Introduction to Marketing Research and Research Design TRU Open Learning Topic 2: The Marketing Research Process Overview Now that you have defined marketing research and discussed the types of problems it helps you to solve, let us move on to a brief introduction of the marketing research process. You will spend most of the course working through this process in more detail, so that you are prepared to design and conduct a real marketing research study by the end of the course. The six steps in the marketing research process as outlined in Figure 1 and page 9 of your textbook are as follows: Figure 1: The marketing research process We will now look at each step more thoroughly: Step 1
—
Defining the Problem Defining the problem (or opportunity) to be resolved is arguably the most important step in the marketing research process. Without a clear definition of the issue, significant time and money can be wasted collecting and analyzing information that has nothing to do with the real problem. It is critical that this definition is clearly stated to the satisfaction of everyone involved. For that reason, the marketing manager is usually heavily involved with the researcher in this step. This initial step results in clarification of the management problem: What should management do? Below are examples of some of the problems or questions that need to be considered:
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MKTG 3481: Marketing Research 13 TRU Open Learning
How much will customers pay?
Where should you spend your advertising dollars?
Why are you losing marketing share to your competition? Step 2
—
Developing an Approach to the Problem This step involves developing a framework that drives the remaining steps in the process. The framework is the structure within which the research will be conducted. It is the step that transcribes the business or management decision problem
into a marketing research problem
—
what information is needed? For example, if the business problem is, “What is the best price to charge for the product?”, then the research problem might include questions like the following:
How much are our current customers willing to pay?
How much would new customers be willing to pay?
What do other companies charge? Step 3
—
Formulating a Research Design The research design is fundamentally the work plan that the researcher will be following in order to collect data, analyze it, and report the results of the research. The research design answers fundamental questions such as the following:
How will you go about answering the questions?
How will you collect the data?
What will you do with the data once you have collected it?
Where will you collect it from, etcetera? Step 4
—
Doing Fieldwork or Collecting Data Data collection is the act of retrieving information from the defined sources that were outlined in the previous research design step. This is your first step in implementing the research. The gathering of data takes on many different forms. In some cases, it may be a simple review of data previously collected; in others it will involve things such as the development of survey instruments or interviews.
14 Module 1: Introduction to Marketing Research and Research Design TRU Open Learning Step 5
—
Preparing and Analyzing Data Data preparation involves data-processing steps leading up to analysis and includes the editing, coding, and transcribing of collected data. Data analysis is where you apply some of what you learned in your earlier statistics course. It is through statistics that you begin to measure the uncertainty of the information you use in making your marketing decisions. Understanding this uncertainty is extremely important in ensuring that you have “good” information rather than “bad” information. Furthermore, analysis is the s
tage where data begins to evolve into information. Step 6
—
Preparing and Analyzing the Report The last step in the process is the final presentation of the data collected in a form that is easily understood by the decision maker. This information should help the decision maker to address the original management decision
problem
or opportunity that was identified in the first step of the process.
MKTG 3481: Marketing Research 15 TRU Open Learning Topic 3: Marketing Research and Marketing Decision Making Overview Management rarely has perfect information, and therefore the concept of making a perfect decision is mostly theoretical. Perfect information is often unachievable because the cost of gathering information may be prohibitive. In addition, even if money were no object, there are inherent errors in data collection. The objective of good marketing research is to reduce the uncertainty that results in a less-than-
perfect decision. There are many reasons why data may be imperfect, and you will discuss these reasons in many of the subsequent modules. These issues include the quantity, quality, and collection process used. Ensuring that the information is as good as possible is such an important issue that it is considered at every step in the process. Activity 4: The Decision-Making Process Introduction We make decisions all the time; these can be categorized into good and bad decisions. In this activity, you will provide a preliminary reflection on both your good and bad decisions. Then, you will read an article from the Harvard Business Review
that describes why executives may make bad decisions. Finally, in your journal, you will write a personal reflection on how your decision-making process may be subjected to the same flaws that affect executive decisions. Instructions Part A: Self-Reflection
Reflect on some of the decisions you have made in your life. Specifically, think of a decision you are particularly proud of (a “good” decision) and a decision you would rather forget (a “bad” decision). Outline some of the characteristics of both decisions. Here are examples of good and bad decisions: Good decision
: After six years of working as a shift manager at a local burger establishment, I decided to pursue my MBA in marketing. Characteristics that made this a good decision:
I considered several different alternatives.
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16 Module 1: Introduction to Marketing Research and Research Design TRU Open Learning
I evaluated the performance outcomes of the various university programs.
I used logic and reasoning in evaluating my final decision. Bad decision
: When I graduated from university, my first big purchase was a Chevy Camaro for which I paid full price. Characteristics that made this a bad decision:
I purchased the first car I saw.
I did not evaluate any alternatives.
I gathered no additional information other than the salesman’s pitch.
I used emotion to make my decision. Part B: Reading
Read the Harvard Business Review
article “The Hidden Traps in Decision Making.” While reading, consider the focus questions in Part C, next. Part C: In Your Journal
In your journal, reflect, discuss, and summarize your findings by considering the following focus questions: What made for effective decisions? Did I fall into any of the hidden traps discussed in the article? What would I do differently next time? These reflections may make valuable additions to your later assignments. Take the time to do them now, and you can use them later. Note Marketing Management Revisited To understand how marketing research fits with marketing decision making, you will find it useful to revisit some of the basic principles of marketing. First, recall the role of marketing that was introduced in your introductory marketing course. Marketing’s role is to determine the needs and wants of customers and to deliver the appropriate good/services to satisfy those needs and wants. You can further refine this to look at the role of managers in marketing, specifically in marketing management. Here is the definition of marketing management
, according to the American Marketing Association:
MKTG 3481: Marketing Research 17 TRU Open Learning The process of setting marketing goals for an organization (considering internal resources and market opportunities), the planning and execution of activities to meet these goals, and measuring progress toward their achievement. [This implies that] the process is ongoing and repetitive (as within a planning cycle) so that the organization may continuously adapt to internal and external changes that create new problems and opportunities. (Source: American Marketing Association at http://www.marketingpower.com/_layouts/Dictionary.aspx?dLe
tter=M
) Take a moment to consider the high degree of overlap between this definition and what you have discussed so far about marketing research. Marketing research plays a major role in helping the organization to understand the external changes that create new problems and opportunities. Typically, the rest of the organization is focused on the internal changes. Marketing research is one of the few areas where the focus is entirely external, and as a result the potential impact on the organization is huge. Figure 1.5 on page 11 illustrates this wide range of external information in the three green boxes
—
uncontrollable environmental factors, customer groups, and controllable marketing variables. Activity 5: The Role of Marketing Research in Marketing Decision Making Introduction This activity is intended to act as a refresher for identifying the basic decision variables of marketing as well as the potential research activities that support these decisions. Instructions Part A: Choose Topics and List Questions
Use Figure 1.5 on page 11 as a reference for this activity. The green boxes at the top describe the major categories of information that marketing research can provide. Choose one or two topics from each of the three boxes, and brainstorm a list of questions (at least two or three for each) that you would want answered about this area so that you can make good business decisions. For example, let us say you’re working for Ferrari, and the company is considering introducing a new hybrid economy car. What is some of the information it would need to make that decision? In the first green box, “Uncontrollable Environmental Factors,” you would probably want to do some research around the economy and
18 Module 1: Introduction to Marketing Research and Research Design TRU Open Learning social and cultural factors. What are the questions you would ask? Then, do the same for the other two green boxes. So, choose your own business problem (
management decision question
) and topics, and proceed. Part B: Brainstorm Research Activities
Identify what kinds of research activities might help you get good information to answer the management decision questions on your list. You’ll be posting these thoughts to a discussions topic, so you may want to record them in a Word document from which you can copy and paste (your journal or another document). We have not talked much yet about the different types of research available, so you will need to draw on your own experiences. To help you generate some ideas, look at the table of contents for Chapters 4 to 8. Part C: Discussion 1.2
—
Research Activity
Read any postings in Discussion 1.2
—
Research Activity
. Other students’ lists may get you thinking and give you some ideas to add to your own. If there are no other postings yet, check back later. Post two of your management decision questions, along with your brainstorming of the types of research activities that would help to address them, to Discussion 1.2
—
Research Activity
. Do a separate posting for each question and make the question the subject of your posting. Glossary:
If you have not done so already, you should begin the process of compiling your own glossary of key terms and concepts. This will help you in understanding the key terms and concepts in each module.
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MKTG 3481: Marketing Research 19 TRU Open Learning Topic 4: The Importance of Defining the Problem Overview Clearly articulated research g
oals will lead to “goal
-
directed” research—
research that is more focused, more accurate, and more useful. If you are very clear initially about what you want the research to achieve, you can remain more focused and make better decisions about design and all of the other steps that follow. It is similar to walking into a grocery store with a clear list of what you need to make tonight’s dinner. You will walk out with a more cost-effective result if you start with a list and then stick to it. Activity 6: Textbook Reading, Chapter 2 Introduction This activity provides you an opportunity to read about how to define a marketing research problem and develop an approach. Instructions Read Chapter 2, “Defining the Marketing Research Problem and Developing an Approa
ch.” As you read, keep in mind the chapter’s Learning Objectives 1, 2, 4, 5, and 6. Also, pay attention to the diagrams and definitions and assess how the case study “The World’s First Sports
-
Utility Wagon” fits within the context of the chapter as a whole. Defining the Problem Defining the problem correctly requires a more complex process than you might have thought. Figure 2.3 on page 36 outlines the tasks involved in problem definition and the approach development process. Take a minute to review the diagram. First, notice how much information is required in order to understand the environmental context of the problem. Here, you will spend time talking with the decision makers and experts, do some secondary research, and perhaps also do some exploratory qualitative research. So, you are investing time in doing research about
the actual research problem. That is a significant investment of time and effort, and it shows you how important it is to get it right. Understanding this concept well will help you get your research proposal approved in Assignment 1. It is important that the problem definition is based on root causes, not symptoms. Figure 2.5 on page 38 and Table 2.1 on page 39 give some examples of this. In this
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20 Module 1: Introduction to Marketing Research and Research Design TRU Open Learning chapter you will find lists of questions and specific topics that would be included in this preliminary research. While working on Assignment 1, you may want to revisit these suggestions as you craft the problem statement (
marketing research question
). Activity 7: Root Cause Analysis and the Five Whys Introduction One important element of defining the problem is making sure that you are researching the root cause of a problem, not just a symptom of that problem. Symptoms are far more apparent to us, but they can lead marketing researchers in the wrong direction. In this activity, you will do some research to understand one approach to root cause analysis called the Five Whys
, and you will post an example of this in Discussions
. (This root cause analysis is useful in analyzing data, as you will do in Assignment 2 (secondary research) and Assignment 3 (focus group.)) Instructions Part A: Research
One approach or technique that is often used by business people and marketing researchers for root cause analysis is the Five Whys. Use the Internet to research it. If you have questions about which information sources are reliable, ask your Open Learning Faculty Member. Part B: In Your Journal
Your task is to think through a problem in marketing that you have observed and to work through the Five Whys process to get to a root cause. Some problems may need more (or fewer) than five steps, but push it as far as you can so that you reveal a cause rather than a symptom. In your journal, record your analysis
—
including the original symptom and your thinking
—
for each of the whys. If you have questions or are unsure about how to do this, ask your Open Learning Faculty Member.
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MKTG 3481: Marketing Research 21 TRU Open Learning Topic 5: The Management-Decision Problem and the Marketing Research Problem Overview A marketing researcher needs to develop a marketing research problem statement
that is useful in providing insights to the management decision problem
. A research project cannot directly solve the management decision problem. The decision maker (manager) is the one who is responsible for making such management decisions based on the information provided from a research project. Therefore, a successful research project usually can provide good information, so that managers can solve their problems. This also explains why marketing research problem statement
is information driven. It tells “what information is needed and how it can best be obtained” (Malhotra, 2012, p. 46).
On the other hand, a management decision problem
is usually an action-related issue, asking what action or decision the organization should take to change the current situation. The marketing research problem
is oriented toward providing the information necessary to make a good decision. The differences between these problems are shown in Table 2.2 on page 46. Review this closely, as you will be applying this understanding to the next activity. A conceptual map makes all of the components of a marketing research problem very clear with a simple fill-in-the-blanks approach. There are three considerations: 1.
Management wants to take an
action
: This is the management decision problem. It is action-oriented and belongs to the decision maker, not the researcher. 2.
Researchers want to study a topic
: Because the action belongs to the decision maker, the researcher should study a topic
of marketing. A clear and precise choice here will help the research project stay focused. The researcher might choose a particular area of market segment or a refined element of the marketing mix. 3.
Researchers want to explain a question
: This is a statement of the marketing research problem, a question that you are investigating and researching in this course. This precise stand-alone statement should indicate what, where and who are under investigation and how the information can be obtained. Only one research question should be developed in each research project. Read the Kimberly-Clark example in the Experiential Learning section on page 47. It provides a good foundation for you to understand how to develop your own marketing research question (required in Assignment 1).
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22 Module 1: Introduction to Marketing Research and Research Design TRU Open Learning Hint:
A good marketing research question seeks information that has either happened or is presently available. No one can obtain future-oriented information that is yet to be available. Therefore, when crafting a marketing research question, be cautious about your wording. Activity 8: Management-Decision Problem or Marketing Research Problem Introduction As you have discussed, understanding the difference between a management-
decision problem and a marketing research problem is critical. This activity will test your ability to identify the difference between the two problems. Instructions Part A: Self-Test 1
Complete the six questions in Self-Test 1, as follows: Click Self-Test 1
below. There is no time limit for this self-test, and you can complete it as many times as you like. Your results will not be part of your formal grade, but as with all activities, completing the self-test and reflecting on it will be part of your Reflective Summary for the course. Part B: In Your Journal
In your journal, record your answers to the following questions: 1.
How important is the distinction between these two types of problems? What are the risks if they are not stated separately? 2.
What patterns are there in the structure of a management-decision problem statement vs. a marketing research problem statement? Review the self-test questions again if this is not clear to you. 3.
Now, draft one clear and precise marketing research statement that is based on the list of your management decision questions that you have written earlier. Write a brief paragraph to justify how the marketing research question is a good choice in providing insights to the management decision question. You will need this to write your research proposal for Assignment 1.
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MKTG 3481: Marketing Research 23 TRU Open Learning Topic 6: Research Approach Questions and Hypothesis Overview Once you have one
clear marketing problem statement, you will start getting more specific. Research components are the specific areas of the problem that the decision maker needs more information about in order to make his/her business decision. See Figure 2.8 on page 49 for details. Your choice of marketing research problem will depend on what analytical frameworks and models you believe relate to the problem. This is called your research approach
, your theories about what is important with regard to the problem. An example given in the textbook is attitude theory, which says that the consumer’s attitude toward a brand is determined by an evaluation of the brand on the most important attributes for the running-shoe market (price, comfort, durability, and style). These models are based on research and experience. Research questions (components) are then addressed by hypothesis
—
an educated guess
—
of what is expected to happen. The hypothesis can then either be proven or disproven by the research. The “Got Milk?” example on page 52 is a good illustration of what this looks like in practice. In the next topic, we discuss the different types of research and the formulation of research design. These research decisions are usually guided by the research approach (theory, models, and frameworks) that you assume.
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24 Module 1: Introduction to Marketing Research and Research Design TRU Open Learning Topic 7: Basic Research Design and the Types of Research Overview Formulating a research design is the third step in the marketing research process introduced in Chapter 1 of the textbook, and it is covered in more depth in Chapter 3. It is in this step that market researchers have the opportunity to demonstrate their creativity and experience in developing an effective research program to address the marketing research problem. There are many different tools and methods available to the researcher, and which tools are used and in what order are critical choices. Again, many research dollars can be used asking questions in the wrong way at the wrong time. Remember, just as there is no perfect research, there is no perfect data, but a researcher should make the best available choices based on his or her constraints. Activity 9: Textbook Reading, Chapter 3 Introduction While reading about research design in your course textbook, you may find it helpful to underline or summarize the key points to reinforce your understanding. Instructions Read Chapter 3, “Research Design.” As you read, keep in mind this chapter’s Learning Objectives 1, 2, 3 and 5. Also, pay attention to the diagrams, definitions, and how the case study introduced at the beginning of the chapter fit within the context of the chapter as a whole. Research Designs There are two broad types of marketing research design; these are compared in Table 3.1 on page 68:
Exploratory research design
: Helps to explore the problem situation. The research is done to understand the problem definition and to gain new insights. We discussed this in Topic 1.
Conclusive research design
: The decision maker uses this information to choose his/her best course of action. The two main types of conclusive research are descriptive and causal research. Good research design will result in a thorough road map for conducting the marketing research project; see Figure 3.8 on page 80. Important technical decisions
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MKTG 3481: Marketing Research 25 TRU Open Learning must be made at this point. You will be discussing many of these decisions in later modules
—
Module 4 deals with measurement, scaling, and questionnaire design; Module 5 addresses sampling process and sample size; and Module 6 shows you how to develop a data analysis plan. This gives you an idea of where you are headed in your study of marketing research. Sources of Error in Marketing Research This is a good time, however, to briefly discuss some of the sources of error in marketing research. You will recall from Chapter 1 that the inherent purpose of marketing research is to reduce the risk of management decision making through good information. The information that is provided by marketing research is valuable because it reduces the risk of management decision making. No research is completely error-free. The two major sources of error are random sampling error and non-sampling error. Random sampling error
occurs because you can rarely ask your questions of every single person in your target group. For practical reasons, you should choose to sample a part of that group. Sampling error results when the sample is not representative of the population under examination. The other type of error is non-sampling error
, much of which can be reduced through careful research design. Examples of non-sampling error include poorly phrased questions and problem definitions, in combination with poor recall by respondents. You will explore such errors in more detail in later modules. Types of Marketing Research Your textbook discusses three types of marketing research:
Exploratory research
Descriptive research
Causal research Exploratory Research Exploratory research is often an important and necessary early step in defining the marketing research problem. Its objective is to help add clarity around the research project. Because it is created to add clarity, exploratory research is typically loosely defined, and the specific questions and process evolve as it progresses. One of the most common forms of exploratory research is the focus group. The focus group
brings a small number of people together to discuss in depth and with great insight a large number of issues and questions. Although the moderator will have a clearly structured discussion guide, the process is flexible enough to allow important
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26 Module 1: Introduction to Marketing Research and Research Design TRU Open Learning issues and new insights to develop. The data that are generated are qualitative and not considered statistically significant. A list of the typical problems addressed by exploratory research is outlined on page 70 of your textbook. It is followed by a list of typical methods that are used for exploratory research (p.70). From your introductory marketing course, you should be familiar with most of these. You will be examining exploratory research in more detail in Module 2. Activity 10: Exploratory Research Introduction Exploratory research is often the first type of research that a company conducts. Very often, it is the part of the research budget that is most under pressure, because it does not deliver actionable results. This activity will give you an opportunity to reflect on when exploratory research is most important. Instructions Part A: Textbook Reading
In the textbook, read the following two short vignettes, which describe how two organizations used exploratory research. These vignettes describe how real companies take the time to invest in using exploratory research to better understand the problem and to test hypotheses so that later research is more focused and more effective. 1.
“Marketing Research Helps Spiegel Redesign Its Product Lines,” page 65 2.
“Banking on Exploratory Research,” the Research in Action, page 71 Part B: In Your Journal
In your journal, document your thoughts by answering the following questions: Reflect on what benefits and value exploratory research brought to these two companies (Spiegel and Bank of America). Think about a product that you might use for your assignments (see the instructions for Assignment 1). For this product, what situations do you think would make exploratory research critical? In what situations would it be less important? You may need this information when completing Assignments 2 and 3. Descriptive and Causal Research We will now consider the two types of conclusive research
designs
—
descriptive and causal research. Both of these are used to assist the decision maker in taking
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MKTG 3481: Marketing Research 27 TRU Open Learning action, so the findings are meant to be “conclusive.” Conclusive research is much more formally designed than exploratory research. It is intended to have a direct impact on decisions, so it needs to be more quantitative, more detailed, larger, and certain. Typically, this type of research takes the largest share of the marketing research budget as well. Descriptive research
is by far the more common of the two approaches. This is the type of research that helps you to better understand your markets and their reaction to your marketing mix. Figure 3.5 on page 72 lists the major types of descriptive studies. If you look at this list, you will find that just about everything falls in one category or another. The tools used for descriptive research are more likely to be quantitative in nature and include surveys, panels, and observational data. It could also include detailed, quantitative secondary research. The sample size of descriptive research is large. The most common type of descriptive research is probably the cross-sectional or sample survey. Here, a group of respondents is selected and is measured only once. In contrast, in a longitudinal survey or panel, the same group of respondents is asked the same question at different points in time to see how their opinions and attitudes change over time. This is a considerably more complicated and expensive type of research, but it is more powerful at detecting change in specific variables. Causal research
,
also known as experiment-based research, is designed to understand and demonstrate cause-and-effect relationships. In order to properly conduct this type of research, all of the other variables that might impact the outcome need to be carefully controlled. The most effective way to do this is through randomization. For example, two Starbucks stores in similar demographic areas could test a new product at two different prices. Researcher needs to hold all other factors (except price in this case) constant in order to collect the accurate measurement. That data could help Starbucks determine the best new price for a nationwide or international product launch. Retailers are probably the most active test marketers in the marketing world. This research can be expensive and can be complicated to implement in nature settings. As a result, it is not widely used in practice. Relationships between Exploratory, Descriptive, and Causal Research Companies will usually conduct research from different types in order to support their marketing research problems. A good example of this is shown on pages 79
–
80 in the Research in Action box. In a situation of declining market share, each of the three types of research (exploratory, descriptive, and causal) all have a role to play in understanding the issue and making a decision about setting a new price. In many situations, different types of research complement each other in different stage of the
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28 Module 1: Introduction to Marketing Research and Research Design TRU Open Learning research process. We will spend more time discussing these types of research in Module 3. Assignment 1: Writing a Research Proposal in APA Style (5%) Click Assignment 1
below for instructions on how to complete this assignment. Also, read the Assignments Overview
. Complete Assignment 1 and submit it to your Open Learning Faculty Member.
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MKTG 3481: Marketing Research 29 TRU Open Learning Module 2: Exploratory Research Overview Basic research is what I am doing when I don’t know what I am doing. —
Wernher von Braun, U.S. (German-born) rocket engineer (1912
–
1977) (Source: http://www.quotationspage.com/quote/933.html) In Module 1, you were introduced to one of the two broad types of marketing research
—
exploratory research
. In Module 2, you will explore this type of research in more detail and apply the concepts by conducting research for your assignments. As the opening quote suggests, market researchers can use their research to improve on their questions and practices. They start with exploratory research to give themselves the opportunity to improve their understanding of the problem, the hypotheses, and ultimately the research design. This step is critical, because exploratory research is usually less costly (and therefore less risky) than most descriptive or quantitative research (where a larger sample size is involved). This module may take you longer to complete than Module 1 because it contains two graded assignments. Module 2 Topics Module 2 covers five topics:
Topic 1: Secondary versus Primary Data
Topic 2: How to Use Secondary Data
Topic 3: Sources of Secondary Data
Topic 4: Introduction to Qualitative Research
Topic 5: Focus Groups In Topic 1
, you will start by discussing when secondary research is most appropriate. As part of this discussion, you will differentiate between primary and secondary research and discuss the specific advantages and disadvantages of secondary research. In Topic 2
, you will focus on how to use secondary data, including why it is collected and what the key criteria are for evaluating its usefulness.
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30 Module 2: Exploratory Research TRU Open Learning In Topic 3
, you will discuss the sources of secondary data, which include internal data about existing customers, government data, and syndicated data that is available commercially. In Topic 4
, you will move on to discuss the range of qualitative research data available. In Topic 5, you will consider focus groups, one of the most commonly used qualitative research methods. Learning Outcomes After you have completed the work in this module, you will be able to:
Describe and differentiate between secondary and primary data collection.
Identify situations when secondary data is most appropriate, and describe the advantages and disadvantages of your choice to use secondary data.
Critique the use of secondary data in the media.
Collect secondary data to refine a marketing research problem.
Explain the importance of qualitative data and the risks involved if it is not done well.
Describe the six-step procedure for conducting a focus group.
Plan, conduct, and interpret a focus group study. Required Resources In addition to the textbook, you will need these resources to work through this module:
n
et.TUTOR’s tutorial at http://liblearn.osu.edu/tutor/
TRU Library’s Evaluating and Citing Sources at http://libguides.tru.ca/content.php?pid=83259
TRU Library’s Business Research Guide
at http://www.tru.ca/library/guides/business/business.html
Snopes.com at http://www.snopes.com/cokelore/newcoke.asp
Focus Group Research: Premium Salad Dressing Packaging by Weatherchem
at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MuiI7BFhQl4&feature=related
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MKTG 3481: Marketing Research 31 TRU Open Learning Assignments Checkpoint Assignment 2 and Assignment 3 are due in this module and are worth 10% each. Assignment 2 is about conducting a secondary research that helps to clarify the marketing research problem that you defined in Assignment 1. In Assignment 3, you will conduct a focus group that will further clarify your marketing research problem, identify new variables, and improve the research design. Module 2 Activities Remember, activities are not formally graded, but you should find them very useful. The activities are designed to help you develop a full understanding and application of the material. All the activities in Module 2 are related to the learning outcomes and prepare you well for success in your assignments and the final exam. If you have any questions about any activities, ask your Open Learning Faculty Member. This gives you the opportunity to resolve any questions and confusion early, so that you can complete your graded work with confidence. Textbook Readings Module 2 covers material from Chapters 4, 5, and 6 of your textbook. Of these, the most important are Chapters 4 and 6, so plan to spend more time on them. Make sure you review the summary at the end of each chapter. While reading, you may find it helpful to underline or summarize key points to reinforce your understanding. The textbook authors have highlighted key terms and concepts for you and offered definitions in the margins. Key terms, which are important for you to understand, are compiled in a list at the end of each chapter. Activity and Assessments Checklist We recommend that by the end of this module you complete all activities and assessments in the order listed here: ✓
Complete and check off: Activity 1: Textbook Reading, Chapter 4 Activity 2: Secondary Data Critique (includes Discussion 2.1) Activity 3: Textbook Reading, Chapter 5
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32 Module 2: Exploratory Research TRU Open Learning Activity 4: Nielsen Ratings Activity 5: Sources of Secondary Data (includes Discussion 2.2) Assignment 2: Secondary Research Activity 6: Marketing Research Failure of New Coke Activity 7: Textbook Reading, Chapter 6 Activity 8: Video: Focus Group Demonstration Assignment 3: Focus Group Research
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MKTG 3481: Marketing Research 33 TRU Open Learning Topic 1: Secondary versus Primary Data Overview Primary data
is data that you have collected specifically to address the problem at hand. This is probably what comes to mind when you think of marketing research
—
surveys, questionnaires, and focus groups are common types of primary data collection. Secondary data
is data that has been collected for some other purposes other than your own marketing research problem. This information is relatively fast and cheap to access. Even though it was not originally collected with your research problem in mind, often the information is relevant enough that it can shed some light on the issues
—
either by helping to refine the problem statement or by answering all or part of your research problem. There is a vast quantity of secondary data available, and it has been made even more accessible by the Internet. It is critical to be really focused on what data is relevant to the problem at hand. For example, if you were designing a toque to sell at the 2014 Winter Olympics at Sochi, Russia, information on similar products from past Winter Olympics would be the most relevant information you could find. Information on the sales of ball caps at past Summer Olympics would be somewhat useful; however, information on the sales of hats in the Moscow area in the past is probably not at all useful. Just because the data exists does not mean it will help to solve your problem! When writing your research paper, you need to justify why the data would be relevant. Activity 1: Textbook Reading, Chapter 4 Introduction This activity provides you an opportunity to read about secondary data in exploratory research design. Instructions Read Chapter 4, “Exploratory Research Design: Secondary Data.” As you read, keep in mind this chapter’s Learning Objectives 1, 2, 3, and 6. Also, review the diagrams, definitions, and vignettes to examine how these fit within the context of the chapter as a whole.
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34 Module 2: Exploratory Research TRU Open Learning Topic 2: How to Use Secondary Data Overview Very often, secondary data is collected in the early stages of a marketing research project to improve the problem definition and research plan. The main advantages of secondary data are its low cost and accessibility in a short period of time. In addition, many companies continually conduct secondary research as a way to keep in touch with developments in their industry, as part of the environmental scanning. The trade-off is that the data is seldom exactly what you need. In addition, the researcher does not have control over the research design and execution, and so often cannot be sure of the quality of the data. It can sometimes be very dangerous to rely on statistics that are quoted in the popular press because often they are phrased more for sensationalism and newsworthiness than for accuracy. We will illustrate this in Activity 2. Secondary data should be reviewed carefully before it is relied on. Table 4.2 on page 98 reviews the major criteria that should be used in evaluating secondary data. These criteria are the result of not being able to control the research design of the original research. Take some time to read these criteria; doing so will help you with Activity 2. Activity 2: Secondary Data Critiquing Introduction Healthy eating is one of the most important topics in Canadian living. Newspaper and researchers are interested in the topic. Before adopting the “knowledge” into practice, we need to evaluate the rigorousness of the information presented. Providing a critique is: …not a matter of saying that things are not right as they are. It is a matter of pointing out on what kinds of assumptions, what kinds of familiar, unchallenged, unconsidered modes of thought the practices that we accept rest. (Foucault, 1988) (Source: Foucault, M. (1988). Practicing criticism. In L. D. Kritzman (ed.), Politics philosophy culture
(pp. 152
–
156). New York: Routledge.) Instructions Part A: Reading
Read the article “Sourdough Bread has Most Health Benefits, Prof Finds” at http://www.uoguelph.ca/news/2008/07/sourdough_bread.html
.
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MKTG 3481: Marketing Research 35 TRU Open Learning Part B: Discussion 2.1
—
Critiquing Secondary Data
1.
Review the criteria for secondary research, Table 4.2 on page 98, and then evaluate the article. 2.
What are the issues of the sourdough bread study? Under Discussion 2.1
—
Critiquing Secondary Data
, post about at least two issues that you have noticed. Do you believe everything you read? Explain why, or why not. 3.
Review any existing postings and reply to at least one. If no postings are available now, remember to return to this discussion topic later so you can respond to another student’s interpretation. 4.
Optional: If you are interested in reading the original research article for the sourdough bread study, use either TRU Library’s article database or the Internet to find it. The short article provides clues regarding where to find the original one. Then you can experience the difference in quality between a first-hand and second-hand research article. The original article gives you a more comprehensive view of the research design and methodology of the study.
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36 Module 2: Exploratory Research TRU Open Learning Topic 3: Sources of Secondary Data Overview Secondary data is abundant. The key is finding the most relevant and accurate information possible. There are two primary sources of secondary data
—
internal and external secondary data. Internal secondary data
is generated from within the organization itself, usually about its own customers. Some may be ready to use as is, but often additional work is required to get the information that you want out of the organization’s databases. In this case, you will spend a lot of time defining specialized reports that you would like to generate. If you are lucky, the organization may have already invested in creating a customer database that includes all of the relevant information pulled together in an organized and accessible format. You may also use data mining approaches to try to discern patterns. For example, if a grocery retailer wants to understand what products are typically purchased together, you would need to use a data mining technique. This problem would require so much data and analysis that it would take far too long to perform the analysis manually. What kind of decisions do you think the grocer would make if the grocer knew what products were purchased at the same time? This might include what products to offer, where to place them in the store, what products to promote together, joint coupon deals that would be attractive, and so forth. The challenge with internal data is that it will likely only cover the company’s current customer base. There will be no way to capture information about (and understand) those people in the target market who are not current customers. External secondary data
is typically available from government or general business sources. Government data is usually very broad compared with the marketing research problem, but it can provide useful background information. The content in the textbook focuses on American data, but similar, Canadian data for Canada is available from the Canadian government. Census data covers many demographic areas, as well as some consumption information (such as automobile and home ownership), and it can be provided for narrow geographical areas of interest. This would be very relevant for someone, say, interested in opening a retail store or starting a home-services business. In addition to census data about people, the government also tracks sales by product categories, known as SICs (Standard Industrial Codes). This can give the market
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MKTG 3481: Marketing Research 37 TRU Open Learning researcher information about his or her own industry or about his or her target customers. The other source of secondary data is from general business sources. These include industry associations, chambers of commerce, trade and professional organizations, and professional marketing research firms. Some of this information is available free to the general public, but often the most valuable information is only available for a fee from syndicated sources. Research reports can cost thousands of dollars, which may sound expensive but is often a very small cost compared with the cost of primary research. The downside is that the same information is available to all of your competitors at the same time
—
so it may not lead to any unique understanding or insight about an industry. Table 5.1 on page 125 is an overview of the most common syndicated sources. Many larger companies would invest in this data. From the perspective of a marketing research student or a small business owner, syndicated data is generally too expensive. You will not need to do any work with these sources for your assignments, but you should be familiar with the types of information that are available and how they should be used, including the following:
Surveys
are probably the most common form of research. This includes periodic surveys (same questions asked of different people over time), panel surveys (same or different questions asked of the same people over time), and shared surveys (developed and executed for multiple clients).
Purchase and media panels
are groups of consumers who record their purchases and behaviour over time. The most familiar of these is probably the Nielsen TV Index, which is based on information collected by an electronic device attached to the TVs of a representative sample of 5,000 households. Many large packaged goods firms use this data extensively to manage their TV advertising strategies.
Electronic scanner services
collect data through cash register scanners. For example, ACNielsen and Information Resources Inc. (IRI) collects, compiles, and sells the data collected through cash register scanners. At first, this may sound like internal secondary data, and you may wonder why the stores would participate in this. The added value here is that the data will include purchases across multiple retailers, which would be of interest to many parties (such as retailers, manufacturers, and advertisers).
Industry services
provide company- or industry-specific information. Dun and Bradstreet (D&B) is probably the most popular source of this information.
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38 Module 2: Exploratory Research TRU Open Learning Many of the secondary research sources listed in the textbook are focused on American sources. Here is a list of some of the best sources for Canadian-specific information:
Statistics Canada (
http://www.statcan.gc.ca) provides Canadian Census data.
The Conference Board of Canada (
http://www.conferenceboard.ca) is an independent applied research organization that offers a wide range of economic, management, and policy information.
Regional websites, such as AlbertaCanada.com (
http://www.albertacanada.com)
, offer information on provinces, regions, or municipalities.
Commercial directories, such as Scott’s Directories (
http://www.scottsinfo.com) provide information on companies in Canada.
Canadian newspapers, such as the Globe and Mail
http://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/
.
Canadian marketing research firms, such as ACNielsen (
http://www.nielsen.com/ca/en.html
) or J.D. Power and Associates http://www.jdpower.com/
.
Regional business centres, such as Small Business BC (
http://www.smallbusinessbc.ca/products-and-services/free-
resources?catID=2
) often offer lists of associations in their areas. Activity 3: Textbook Reading, Chapter 5 Introduction This activity provides you an opportunity to read about syndicated sources of secondary data. Instructions Read Chapter 5, “Exploratory Research Design: Syndicated Sources of Secondary Data.” Pay particular attention to Learning Objectives 1, 5, and 6 and the diagrams, new terminology, and vignettes. Activity 4: Nielsen Ratings Introduction Nielsen is probably the most famous and widely used example of syndicated research. This activity asks you to visit the Nielsen website and examine some of Nielsen’s summary statistics by country.
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MKTG 3481: Marketing Research 39 TRU Open Learning Instructions Part A: Nielsen Exercise
Go to Nielsen http://www.nielsen.com/us/en/insights.html to explore indices, metrics, and rankings of media usages of different countries of the world. The Insights section provides access to their current research and news items or you can search their site. Some suggested terms are: State of the Media, Ad Spend Activity 5: Sources of Secondary Data Introduction This activity will help you complete Assignment 2 by helping you to strengthen your basic research skills and begin looking for good sources of secondary data so you can refine your marketing research problem for the research project. You will post, under Discussion 2.2
—
Secondary Sources
, annotated bibliographies of two of your best sources. You might find that the sources that others post will also be helpful to you. Part A: Basic Web Search Skills
Go to TRU Library’s short guide Evaluate and Citing Sources
Part B: Secondary Sources
Use your skills to build a list of sources of good secondary sources and data for your next assignment. In addition to Google or other search engines, you can use TRU Library’s Business Research Guide
to pull together all of the resources available through TRU Library. In compiling your list of sources of secondary data, consider the following categories of information:
Customers
Competitors
Supply chain (suppliers, distributors, wholesalers, etc.)
General industry information and trends
Relevant economic information and trends
Other Part C: Discussion 2.2
—
Secondary Sources
Choose two resources from your search that you think will provide good information. Prepare an annotated bibliography for each of your resources and post them in Discussion 2.2
—
Secondary Sources
. Use one posting per source, and make the subject of your posting the name of the source. Your postings should include:
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40 Module 2: Exploratory Research TRU Open Learning
Resource name
URL
Date reviewed
Brief description
Rating on criteria for evaluating secondary data (page 100 of your textbook)
Additional comments Assignment 2: Secondary Research (10%) It is now time to complete Assignment 2. Click the Assignments
link to see the instructions and guidelines for Assignment 2. Also, read the Assignments Overview
. Complete Assignment 2 and submit it to your Open Learning Faculty Member.
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MKTG 3481: Marketing Research 41 TRU Open Learning Topic 4: Introduction to Qualitative Research Overview You will now move on to considering the other kind of research that is most often used as part of the exploratory research
—
qualitative research. Like secondary research, qualitative research
is aimed at providing insight into the problem setting. It explores the problem with few preconceived notions about the outcome of that exploration and is based on small, non-representative samples. Data are analyzed in a non-statistical way. The alternative to qualitative research is quantitative research
, which seeks conclusive evidence based on large, representative samples and involves some form of statistical analysis. The findings of such research can be used to recommend a final course of action. Table 6.1 on page 150 is an overview of the main differences between them. We will be discussing quantitative research in more detail in Module 3. The authors of your textbook discuss a much-talked-
about marketing “failure” that some say was a planned success
—
the introduction of “new Coke” (see page 151). Some believe that this was just Coke’s way of extending its product line with a new variation on its product, but insiders have assured us that this was not planned
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it was a mistake. If they had conducted good exploratory research to understand the issues that are really important to consumers, they would have avoided this failure. Focus groups
are the most popular qualitative research technique, and that will be the focus of the final topic of this module. In industry, projective techniques are not commonly used, so they will not be discussed here. Activity 6: Marketing Research Failure of New Coke Introduction A popular urban legend is that Coca-Cola planned the introduction of New Coke to be a brand extension and that the company expected that consumers would demand that the original Coke remain available. The textbook introduces the story and in this activity, you will read more about the common misperception that the “failure” of New Coke was planned. Instructions Part A: Reading
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42 Module 2: Exploratory Research TRU Open Learning On page 151, read about the marketing research failure of New Coke. Then, at Snopes.com
, read about the false but common belief that this failure was planned by Coca-Cola. Part B: In Your Journal
In your journal, reflect on the marketing research errors that Coca-Cola made in introducing this new product. What could Coca-Cola have done to avoid these problems? Do you believe that it made a mistake, or do you believe it was intentional? Why? What role does qualitative research play in the case of Coke?
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MKTG 3481: Marketing Research 43 TRU Open Learning Topic 5: Focus Groups Overview Focus groups are small-group interviews conducted by a trained moderator that are aimed at better understanding customers’ feelings and thoughts relating to a product. Figure 6.5 on page 152 takes you through the procedure for conducting a focus group. This is important for you, as in your next assignment you are required to prepare, conduct, and document a focus group. The procedure for conducting focus groups includes the following six steps: 1.
Design the environment
: Typically, focus groups take place in conference rooms with one-way mirrors and/or video equipment. The surroundings are neutral but comfortable. 2.
Recruit and select participants
: Most groups are composed of eight to twelve members. Normally, criteria are agreed upon that relate to the marketing research problem being addressed. Participants should be homogeneous in each group. Therefore, non-users, occasional users, and frequent users should be done in separate groups. Each group would be able to offer different but valuable insights. A screening process is required in order to avoid “misfit” participants in a group. 3.
Select the moderator
: This is probably the most important step of all. The skill of the moderator is very important to the success of the group. The moderator must have good product knowledge and excellent instincts about where to take the group’s discussion. She or he must be able to establish rapport with the participants, keep the discussion moving forward, and probe the participants to elicit insights. This person usually plays a central role in analyzing and interpreting the data. 4.
Prepare the focus group discussion guide
: The moderator will have a major role in preparing the discussion guide. The best guides identify a series of issues (research components) that the research is designed to address and include a list of possible questions for each issue. These questions are not always followed verbatim or in order, and that is where the art and skill of moderating comes in. A good moderator knows when to probe and when to move on. There is a good example of a discussion guide on pages 154 and 155. Take some time to review it. 5.
Conduct the interview
: Finally, it is time to actually conduct the focus group interview. The group will have three stages: an introduction to make participants feel welcome and understand what is expected of them; the body
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44 Module 2: Exploratory Research TRU Open Learning of the interview; and a closing exercise that captures any ideas that were not specifically asked for during the interview. 6.
Prepare the focus group report
: These reports typically rely heavily on quotes that have been captured in an audio or video recording and transcribed. The client may have some strong reactions on the spot as well, but a well-
documented report written by the “third party” moderator can add significant value. The moderator does not have a stake in the decisions being made, but usually people in the client company do, and they may hear what they want to hear. On pages 156 and 157 is a sample of a topline report that shows only preliminary results of a focus group study. Take a few minutes to review this sample report, as you will be asked to submit a similar report in your next assignment. Activity 7: Textbook Reading, Chapter 6 Introduction This activity provides you an opportunity to read about qualitative research. Instructions Read Chapter 6, “Exploratory Research Design: Qualitative Research.” Pay particular attention to this chapter’s Learning Objectives 1, 3, and 7; als
o note the diagrams, new terminology, and note how the vignettes referenced fit within the context of the chapter as a whole. Activity 8: Video: Focus Group Demonstration Introduction For Assignment 3, you must prepare, conduct, and summarize a focus group study. The textbook provides great examples of a discussion guide and a topline report. This activity will give you the opportunity to see what a focus group looks like. Instructions Part A: Video
View Focus Group Research: Premium Salad Dressing Packaging by Weatherchem. https://www.youtube.com/embed/MuiI7BFhQl This sample focus group on this short video (four or five minutes) comments on salad dressing packaging preferences (flip-top versus twist-top) among consumers. One good thing about this video is that it has subtitles, which is helpful for you to
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MKTG 3481: Marketing Research 45 TRU Open Learning understand the content. It is interesting to notice where the camcorder was put and the uniqueness of the window glass. Part B: In Your Journal
In your journal, make notes about what you see so that you are better prepared to conduct your own focus group. You might consider the following:
How is the room arranged? How will you arrange your room?
What visual aids does the moderator use? What visual aids will you use?
What the ratio is of closed to open-ended questions? How are they used?
What does the moderator do to encourage participants to be more participative? What will you do?
How does the moderator balance seeking consensus with getting a variety of responses? How will you do this?
How does the moderator record the feedback? How will you record input? Assignment 3: Focus Group Research (10%) Go to the assignment below to see the instructions and guidelines for this assignment. Also, read the Assignments Overview
. Complete Assignment 3 and submit it to your Open Learning Faculty Member. You may want to continue with the work in Module 3 (which has no assignment) while you are still working on Assignment 3. Be sure to manage your time appropriately.
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46 Module 3: Descriptive Research TRU Open Learning Module 3: Descriptive Research Overview Whatever exists at all exists in some amount. To know it thoroughly involves knowing its quality as well as its quantity. —
E. L. Thorndike (1918) (Source: Barrett, P. (2003). Beyond psychometrics: Measurement, non-quantitative structure, and applied numerics.
Journal of Managerial Psychology, 18
(5), 421
–
439.) This module introduces descriptive research, one of two types of conclusive research, covered in Chapter 7. Descriptive research is often the first that comes to mind because it is one of the most commonly used methods in our everyday life. However, as it is suggested in the above quote, exploratory research (discussed in Module 2) is equally important, given its nature is more “behind the scenes” an
d involves fewer participants. In this module, we will turn our focus onto two methods of descriptive research: survey and observation. The size and complexity of descriptive research make it typically the largest part of the marketing research budget. Much of the work done in exploratory research is to ensure that time and money are not wasted in the descriptive research phase. Module 3 Topics Module 3 covers four topics:
Topic 1: Survey Methods
Topic 2: How to Choose a Survey Method
Topic 3: Observational Methods
Topic 4: How to Choose Between Surveys and Observation Topic 1
begins with a look at the different types of survey methods available to researchers in. This topic introduces some new terminologies, and there may be methods of research with which you are unfamiliar. Next, we will discuss how to choose a survey method that suits your marketing research problem and target market in Topic 2.
You will be introduced to observational methods of research in Topic 3
and the terminologies that describe them.
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MKTG 3481: Marketing Research 47 TRU Open Learning Finally, in Topic 4
, we discuss how to choose between surveys and observational research methods. Learning Outcomes After you have completed the work in this module, you will be able to:
Recommend the best survey method for situations with different priorities.
Critique the use of an Internet survey to solve a marketing research problem.
Discuss major issues with survey research, including sample control, social desirability, and interviewer bias.
Create a strategy for increasing survey response rates.
Differentiate between situations that call for surveys and those that call for observational research.
Debate the value of observational research vs. the ethics of observing subjects without their knowledge.
Analyze the impact of technology on marketing research approaches. Required Resources In addition to the textbook, you will need these resources to work through this module:
Web Online Surveys for a sample survey at http://www.web-online-
surveys.com
Internet survey provider CreateSurvey’s web page at http://www.createsurvey.com
SurveyMonkey’s website at http://www.surveymonkey.com Assignments Checkpoint There is no graded assignment in this module. However, the material covered here is very relevant to Assignment 4 in Module 4, which is to design, execute, and report on a survey. Keep this in mind as you work through the material. You may also find that you are working through this material while you are still scheduling and completing Assignment 3, from Module 2. Be sure to complete that assignment and get feedback from your Open Learning Faculty Member before you proceed to Module 4 and Assignment 4.
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48 Module 3: Descriptive Research TRU Open Learning Module 3 Activities All the activities in Module 3 are related to the learning outcomes and prepare you well for success in your assignments and the final exam. Remember, if you have any questions about any activities, feel free to email your Open Learning Faculty Member. This gives you the opportunity to resolve any questions and confusion early, so that you can complete your graded work with confidence! Textbook Readings This module covers materials from Chapter 7 of your textbook and briefly addresses Chapter 8. Make sure you review the summary at the end of Chapter 7. Activity and Assessments Checklist We recommend that by the end of this module you complete all activities and assessments in the order listed here: ✓
Complete and check off: Activity 1: Textbook Reading, Chapter 7 Activity 2: Internet Survey Critique (includes Discussion 3.1) Activity 3: Survey Methods Comparison (includes Self-Test 2) Activity 4: Survey Method Options Activity 5: The Ethics of Video Cameras (includes Discussion 3.2) Activity 6: The Impact of Social Media on Research
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MKTG 3481: Marketing Research 49 TRU Open Learning Topic 1: Survey Methods Overview Survey is one of the most commonly used marketing research methods. It can be complicated and expensive to conduct. The textbook offers a summary of the advantages and disadvantages of surveys. Surveys are easy to take part, reliable (if samples are correctly drawn), and simple to analyze if one acquires sufficient of statistical knowledge and training. The biggest challenge of survey research is probably about securing active and sincere participants as there are excessive amount of surveys available both online and offline. People are often “surveyed out.” Another challenge is the ability to recall. Sometimes respondents may not be able to recall what was asked. For example, you may ask a question about how many kilometres did the respondents travel last week by car or bus. Many could not give an accurate answer because of a number of reasons. Some didn’t keep a record
and others thought it too much trouble to figure out. As a result, the answers provided could be a best estimation or simply a made up number. In fact, could you provide an accurate answer? What if you were to ask, “Why did you choose to take the bus or a
car on those trips?” Some people may answer that in a very straightforward way—
because they do or do not own a car. Others may interpret the question differently and think about specific motivations. These may vary widely with each trip that they took during the week
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perhaps there is no bus route to some of their destinations, or perhaps they prefer car-pooling on other days. The problem of this question is a two-in-one (in which two questions are packed into one). Instead, there should be one question asking the motivations for taking the bus and another question focusing on why people travel by car. The textbook further illustrates the various methods used to conduct surveys. Table 7.1 on pages 188 and 189 provides a summary of the advantages and disadvantages of each mode of administration method. Many companies are now turning to survey methods that are made possible by the proliferation of new technologies
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including email surveys, Internet-based surveys, and CAPI (computer-assisted personal interviewing). The discussion of the various methods raises some important issues relating to survey research, including:
Sample control
: This relates to how easy it is to obtain the number of responses specified by the sampling method. Sample control is higher for telephone interviewing than for, say, mall intercepts because it is possible to arrange call-backs and follow-ups.
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50 Module 3: Descriptive Research TRU Open Learning
Response rate
: This is the percentage of total attempted interviews that are completed. Response rates tend to be lowest for snail mail, email, and Internet surveys. The electronic forms of surveys are typically very inexpensive to conduct, and often that compensates for the low response rate.
Social desirability
: This is the tendency of respondents to give answers that are seen as socially acceptable. For example, respondents may say that they are aware of products that they have never heard of, to seem “in the know,” or they may falsely list reasons for their purchase that seem more sophisticated or thoughtful than they really are. For example, most people choose their gas station based on location and price
—
but respondents may overemphasize the importance of the environmental policies of the company because it makes them seem more sophisticated and “green.”
Interviewer bias
: This results when the interviewers influence the responses through verbal or non-verbal cues. Often the interviewers are not even aware that they are doing it. For example, if interviewers are accustomed to receiving a certain response to a question, they may end up pausing or emphasizing that choice when they ask the question. Personal methods of interviewing are most affected by this issue. Activity 1: Textbook Reading, Chapter 7 Introduction This activity provides you an opportunity to read from your textbook and to examine how the vignette referred to at the beginning of the chapter fits within the context of the chapter as a whole. Instructions Read Chapter 7, “Descriptive Research Design: Survey and Observation.” As you read, pay particular attention to Learning Objectives 1, 2, 4, and 5 and to the diagrams, definitions, and new terminology. Activity 2: Internet Survey Critique Introduction The Internet is increasingly being used to conduct surveys, both by email or in websites. In this activity, you will review some of the information available on the Internet about Internet surveys, and then critique an Internet survey of your choice. Instructions Part A: Review the Information on Internet Surveys
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MKTG 3481: Marketing Research 51 TRU Open Learning Complete the Experiential Learning exercises shown on page 197 of your textbook. The websites listed show you the following:
Examples of Internet surveys
How to subscribe to an Internet survey panel (you just need to review these sites to see what is available, you do not need to register.)
How results of a survey are reported and monitored Follow the instructions in Questions 1, 2, and 4 in the Experiential Learning box. For Question 4, you need to use the access code provided with the textbook. If you do not have an access code, you can do this exercise in Survey Monkey http://www.surveymonkey.com
. Its “basic subscription” is free for surveys with a maximum of 10 questions and 100 respondents. You may decide you want to use this tool for Assignment 4 in Module 4, so take some time to look at it now. Note Another one, listed in the textbook and widely used, is Zoomerang (
www.zoomerang.com
). Its “basic” service is also free for surveys, with a maximum of thirty questions (more than SurveyMonkey) and 100 respondents. Part B: Select, Complete, and Critique a Survey
Choose an Internet survey that you will complete and critique. Try to find a survey that relates to the product you have chosen for your assignments. Assignment 4 in Module 4 will require you to create a survey for your research problem, so examining a competitor’s survey now may be helpful. If you cannot find a survey in your product area, you may choose one that is unrelated. You may find one at the Web Online Surveys website at www.web-
online-surveys.com or by using a good search engine. Once you have selected a survey, copy and paste it into a Word document for later reference. Then, complete that survey yourself. Take some time to reflect on what you think is the marketing research problem the originator is trying to solve with this research and how effective this research method is for their purposes. If you notice any problems with specific questions, make a note of these as well.
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52 Module 3: Descriptive Research TRU Open Learning Part C: Discussion 3.1
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Internet Surveys
Make a posting to Discussion 3.1
—
Internet Surveys
that includes the following: 1.
Product/service being surveyed 2.
Your best guess as to the marketing research problem being considered. 3.
Your assessment of how effective their choice of research method is. Consider the advantages and disadvantages of surveys in general and Internet surveys in particular 4.
Recommendations as to how this could be improved 5.
The survey itself in a Word document, posted to this discussion topic
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MKTG 3481: Marketing Research 53 TRU Open Learning Topic 2: How to Choose a Survey Method Overview There are always trade-offs when choosing a survey method
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none are ideal for all the relevant criteria. You need to carefully consider what your priorities and constraints are, taking them into account when making your decision. Very often, research firms will use several methods in order to balance out cost, time, and quality of information. For example, it is impressive how quickly a telephone survey can be implemented. When the first draft of the survey is completed, a well-staffed research firm can have its staff test the survey immediately and, depending on respondent criteria, can have some early feedback within a matter of hours. This is a terrific way to test a survey before it is modified for use with another mode of administration. Tremendous effort is put toward trying to improve survey response rates. This begins with survey design; it is critical that the introduction of the questionnaire is clear, purposeful, and perhaps intriguing
—
this will increase participation. It is also important that the interviewer be clear about the length and complexity of the survey. If respondents are asked for five minutes of their time, but in practice the survey takes over fifteen minutes to complete, many res
pondents will “abandon” the survey, and none of their responses should be counted. Other methods discussed in the textbook for improving response rates include the following:
Prior notification
: This “warms” up the contact, so that respondents are both pre-screened and have had the opportunity to schedule the time for the survey. “Warm” calls almost always receive a higher response rate than “cold” calls.
Incentives
: Sometimes these are included with the survey regardless of whether or not it is completed (a prepaid incentive), but usually a promised incentive is used to reward those who complete the survey. Lottery tickets can be an inexpensive and fun incentive.
Follow-up
: Similar to prior notification, follow-up is a personal contact with the potential respondent that lets them know that their participation is valued and their response would be appreciated. Personal touches like this can make a huge difference.
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54 Module 3: Descriptive Research TRU Open Learning Activity 3: Survey Methods Comparison Introduction This module contains a lot of information that compares the various survey methods. This activity includes Self-Test 2, designed to see if you have understood these comparisons. Try to complete it without referring to the textbook or your notes. Instructions Part A: Textbook Review
Review the relative advantages and disadvantages of different survey methods in Table 7.1 on page 191 and the criteria for selecting a survey method on page 199. Part B: Self-Test 2
Complete the four questions in Self-Test 2
After completing Part A of this activity, click Self-Test 2
below. There is no time limit for this self-test, and you can complete it as many times as you like. Your results will not be part of your formal grade, but as with all activities, completing the self-test and reflecting on it will be part of your Reflective Summary for the course. Activity 4: Survey Method Options Introduction For your next assignment (Assignment 4 in Module 4), you will be asked to design a survey. In this activity, you will take some time to consider what survey method you will use. Instructions Part A: Survey Method Options
Take some time to review the survey methods discussed in Table 7.1 on pages 188 and 189. Think about the marketing research problem and the target respondents that you have in mind, as well as your time and geographical constraints. Part B: In Your Journal
Record your thoughts as to how you would like to conduct the research. Plan to try at least two methods to collect your data. One method should use electronic (email, Internet, etc.); one method should be personal (telephone, mall intercept, etc.). You
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MKTG 3481: Marketing Research 55 TRU Open Learning might collect the survey responses through telephone interviews and email survey. Or, you might try an online survey using SurveyMonkey and also do some live interviews (e.g., mall intercepts). You probably will not have time for snail mail interviews or panels. In your journal, document why you made your choices and what the implications are for your research. You will use these reflections in Assignment 4 in Module 4.
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56 Module 3: Descriptive Research TRU Open Learning Topic 3: Observational Methods Overview Observational methods are the other type of descriptive research. Conduct observation as unobtrusively as possible so that the research subjects are not encouraged to change their behaviours because of the research. The issues of social desirability and interviewer bias can come into play with this research method, as well. One way to avoid these issues is to structure your research to use records of past events
—
videotapes or sales records. There are two main types of observational research. In personal observation
, a trained observer manually records behaviours as they occur. Marketing research problems that relate to consumer behaviour comprise probably the most common situation that calls for personal observation. The observer can record how the subject interacts with the store environment, products, and personnel. In humanistic inquiry, the researcher actually interacts with the subject by, for example, seeking advice on a purchase. The observer is not identified as a researcher but rather poses as a participant in the situation
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as a shopper or a sales person. It can be very complicated to record behaviour as it occurs, and training and an eye for detail are essential to the success of this method. The second way to conduct observational research is with mechanical observation
. In this method, a mechanical device is used to record behaviour. Mechanical observation is becoming more and more common, as an increasing amount of information is collected through video cameras, scanners, web site cookies, and other devices and methods. When observation is done correctly, the subjects should not be aware that they are being observed. If they are aware, this might affect their behaviour. Activity 5: The Ethics of Video Cameras Introduction Video cameras are becoming a popular cultural phenomenon. Traditionally, these video cameras were positioned to show scenes of special interest, such as current traffic conditions or the progress of a newborn animal at the zoo. The use of this technology is spreading, and some retailers are not only recording what is happening in their stores but also posting it on the Internet. In this activity, you will look at some of the video cams being used in commercial businesses and discuss the ethics around using these devices.
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MKTG 3481: Marketing Research 57 TRU Open Learning Instructions Part A: Retail Video Cams
Use a good search engine to find some public video cams that record shopper behaviour. If you cannot find a video cam on the Internet, you can visit a shopping mall near you and look carefully to find a store that uses video cameras recording shopper behaviour. Part B: In Your Journal
After watching the video, reflect on the ethical issues involved in observational research, and record your thoughts in your reflective journal. Do you think that shoppers should be informed that they are being videotaped? What are the risks? Is there anything else that the ethical researcher should do? Part C: Discussion 3.2
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Video Cams
Make a posting to Discussion 3.2
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Video Cams: 1.
List the URL and give a brief description of the retail video cam that you found on the Internet. If you cannot find a video cam, visit a shopping mall near you and look carefully to find a store that has video cameras recording shopper behaviour. 2.
Make notes on the number and location of these video cameras and post your research (including the name and address of the store and the date of the observations). 3.
Include your reflections on the ethics of observational research. You may choose to either make an original posting on this or respond to two postings that have been made by previous students.
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58 Module 3: Descriptive Research TRU Open Learning Topic 4: How to Choose Between Surveys and Observation Overview Surveys are certainly a far more common form of marketing research than observation. As consumers, however, you may not aware of how often companies conduct observational research without your prior knowledge. This indeed poses ethical issues on observation without participant’s consent. Observational research methods can provide some important advantages, as it does not require conscious respondent participation. This can significantly reduce non-
response errors and interviewer bias. Often, participants are not aware that they are taking part in a research; therefore it can minimize socially acceptable responses. The data can be more accurate, because it usually focuses more on behaviours rather than opinions, hence less chances for respondent errors. Observational methods are limited in that they only record observable behaviours. They are not helpful in understanding attitudes, motivations, and values. Observers may not be able to observe all of the behaviours that happen, so there may be some observer biases in what they record. Finally, observation is appropriate for behaviours that occur frequently or of short duration. Now that we have discussed descriptive research
—
one of two types of conclusive research
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we will briefly consider the other type, causal research, which may use experiment as a research method. In this situation, the researcher changes one or more variables, then observes and measures the effect(s) that has on the situation. The most common examples of this in industry are companies that try different versions of marketing materials (with response codes included) to see which generates a better response, or retailers trying different prices at different locations to see what the impact is on the sales volume and revenues. We won’t be covering Chapter 8 other than referring you to the Research in Action box on page 223 (“Taking Coupons at Face Value”), which gives an example of how field research can be used to understand the likelihood of different groups of shoppers cashing coupons of different values. Here, experiment was used in conjunction with a personal interview technique to understand both behaviours and their motivations under different scenarios. This is a good example of the types of research questions that experimental research can address and how the terminology around experiment can be used. In short, this research design is rather complex and requires advanced research techniques and experience to execute the process well.
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MKTG 3481: Marketing Research 59 TRU Open Learning Activity 6: The Impact of Social Media on Research Introduction In the textbook, the author observes that advances in technology may make observational methods more common and popular amongst businesses. In addition, social media has increased the ability of researchers to disseminate questionnaires faster and easier. In this activity, you will consider why that might be the case, and also look at the broader issue of technology’s impact on marketing research.
Instructions Part A: Textbook Reading
It will be helpful for you to review the parts of the textbook that relate to this issue. These include the sections that describe the advantages and disadvantages of survey research (page 186) and observational research on (page 204), as well as the section on marketing research and social media (pages 208 and 209). Part B: In Your Journal
In your journal, reflect on the impact that technology has on the choice of marketing research methods. Do not limit your thinking to just survey and observational research. Reflect on all of the marketing research methods that you have discussed in the course so far and how technology has impacted them.
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60 Module 4: Scaling TRU Open Learning Module 4: Scaling Overview If we knew what we were doing, it wouldn’t be called research, would it? —
Albert Einstein (Source: https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Talk:Albert_Einstein ) This and the next modules go into more detail about how you work with survey and descriptive research. Some of these techniques can be applied to other forms of research (e.g., interviews), but for the most part these are about how you make best use of the bulk of the marketing research budget. In this module, you will consider how to build the scales that will capture the data you are measuring and what questions to use to get those responses. The scaling techniques that you use will have a significant effect on what statistical techniques you can use. Scales are the options that respondents are given to provide their information. By choosing to give respondents leeway in how they respond, you can have a huge impact on the nature, level of detail, and quality of the information that is offered. Can you remember a time when you agreed to complete a marketing research survey but found the survey design so complicated that you just gave up? Researchers can waste a lot of time and money with “abandoned surveys”—
or even worse, with collected data that is meaningless. You will also carefully consider questionnaire and survey design. It is more complicated than it seems! A slight change in wording can easily change responses. It pays to take your time and pretest your questionnaire to be sure it is measuring what you want it to measure. Module 4 Topics Module 4 covers six topics:
Topic 1: Primary Scales of Measurement
Topic 2: Comparative Scales
Topic 3: Noncomparative Scales
Topic 4: Noncomparative Scale Decisions
Topic 5: Scale Evaluation
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MKTG 3481: Marketing Research 61 TRU Open Learning
Topic 6: Questionnaire Design We will begin Topic 1
by defining, and differentiating, between measurements and scaling, introducing the primary scales of measurement: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio, and discussing when their uses are most appropriate. There is a lot of new terminologies here to do with scales. Topic 2
introduces comparative scales of measurement, including paired comparison, rank order, and constant sum scaling. In Topic 3
, we will discuss noncomparative scales; in Topic 4
, the decisions that relate to them; and in Topic 5
, scale evaluation. In Topic 6
, we look at questionnaire and form design. Finally, you will create and administer a small survey as part of your research project. Learning Outcomes After you have completed the work in this module, you will be able to do the following:
Identify the primary scales of measurement and differentiate between nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio scales.
Explain Likert, semantic differential, and Stapel scales of measurement.
Create and critique a scale to be used in a marketing research survey.
Explain the ten steps to good survey design.
Critique and revise a marketing research questionnaire.
Create and conduct a small survey, applying a wide range of survey techniques, scales, and questionnaire techniques. Required Resources In addition to the textbook, you will need these resources to work through this module:
The textbook’s second and third editions websites for data files at http://www.prenhall.com/malhotra
Free marketing research survey tools on the Internet, including: o
http://www.surveymonkey.com o
http://www.qualtrics.com// o
http://www.createsurvey.com
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62 Module 4: Scaling TRU Open Learning o
http://www.questionpro.com o
http://www.web-online-surveys.com/ Assignments Checkpoint Assignment 4, worth 10% of your final grade, is included in this module. Module 4 Activities All the activities in Module 4 are related to the learning outcomes and prepare you well for success in your assignments and the final exam. Textbook Readings This module covers materials from Chapters 9, 10, and 11 of your textbook. Make sure you review the summary at the end of each of these chapters. Activity and Assessments Checklist We recommend that by the end of this module you complete all activities and assessments in the order listed here: ✓
Complete and check off: Activity 1: Textbook Reading, Chapter 9 Activity 2: Identifying Primary Scales (includes Self-Test 3) Activity 3: Textbook Reading, Chapter 10 Activity 4: Creating and Critiquing Scales (includes Discussion 4.1) Activity 5: Textbook Reading, Chapter 11 Activity 6: Critiquing a Questionnaire Assignment 4
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MKTG 3481: Marketing Research 63 TRU Open Learning Topic 1: Primary Scales of Measurement Overview We will begin by clarifying some terminologies
—
measurement vs. scaling. Measurement
is about assigning numbers to the information you are gathering, and scaling
is a way of expressing the results on a continuum so that they can be compared with each other or some other standard. Sometimes measurement and scaling are very simple and obvious, such as when you are measuring something that is quantitative and measured using numbers to begin with. Other times, the researcher will need to “code” or assign numbers to represent the answers. For example, if respondents were offered a series of words to describe their responses (not satisfied, somewhat satisfied, very satisfied), the researcher might code those as 1, 2, and 3, respectively. There are four primary scales of measurement; these are compared in Figure 9.4 on page 250 of your textbook and again in Table 9.1 on page 251. Your choice of scale is important. It may help the respondents to answer the survey faster and more accurately. It will also impact how you are able to analyze and interpret the data. Consider your choice of scales carefully. The four scales are:
Nominal scale
Ordinal scale
Interval scale
Ratio scale Nominal Scale Nominal scales are primarily used for labelling. Numbers are assigned that identify the object or participant. The numbers do not reflect the relative amounts of the characteristic being measured. They are primarily identifiers. This scale may report data in terms of percentages or frequency. So, for example, you may code respondents to a survey as being either female (“1”) or male (“2”) and may find that 45% of the respondents to the s
urvey are code “1” (female), and 55% are code “2” (male). A nominal scale is both “mutually exclusive” (respondents are either male or female but cannot be both) and “collectively exhaustive” (all respondents will be either male or female; there is no third option). These requirements mean that you need to give careful consideration to creating these categories
—
often you will need an “other” category to capture respondents that do not fit into the most common classes. The Research in Action box on page 252 of your text provides a good example of this.
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64 Module 4: Scaling TRU Open Learning Ordinal Scale An ordinal scale is one in which responses are put into a rank order. Respondents may be asked to rank order their preferences for brands within a certain category. Ordinal scales capture relative positioning, but not the relationship between them. One respondent may have a strong preference for Coke over Pepsi, and another may have only a slight preference; an ordinal scale will not differentiate between those responses. Ordinal scales are often easier and faster for respondents to consider compared with the next two, more detailed scales. The Research in Action box at the top of page 253 in your textbook offers a great application of an ordinal scale. Interval Scale Interval scales assign specific ratings or numbers to describe the characteristic being measured. The numbers that are used carry more information than just order
—
they also relay the intensity of the characteristic. Often, just the relevant range of numbers is offered, and that range does not start with zero. For example, the respondents may be asked to rate their satisfaction with a product and the scale may start at three and end at nine. The distance between the intervals is meaningful, but the scale doesn’t start as zero, so the rati
ngs can’t be directly compared. Because these numbers reflect the value of the characteristics, a lot more statistical work can be done to show range, mean, standard deviation, etcetera. The Research in Action box on page 254 in your textbook offers a great application of an interval scale. Ratio Scale Finally, ratio scales are the type of scale with the most information. Similar to interval scales, they measure the characteristic, but they are also anchored at zero, so ratios between responses are meaningful. Respondents often will provide their own, precise answer, rather than being asked to choose between discrete options. For example, you might be asked to give your height. You may have a scale to circle, or you may just write it in a blank. Heights can be compared between respondents, because the starting point for everyone is zero and the interval between heights is consistent and meaningful. The Research in Action box on page 255 of your text provides a good example of this. On pages 255 and 256 the author provides a good example of the ways that these four types of scales could be applied to measuring annual household income (See: Selecting a level of measurement). Review this example to make sure that you understand the differences.
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MKTG 3481: Marketing Research 65 TRU Open Learning Activity 1: Textbook Reading, Chapter 9 Introduction This activity provides you an opportunity to read about measurement and scaling fundamentals and comparative scaling. Instructions Read Chapter 9, “Measurement and Scaling: Fundamentals and Comparative Scaling.” Pay particular attention to this chapter’s Learning Objectives 1, 2, and 3 and its diagrams, terminologies, and vignettes.
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66 Module 4: Scaling TRU Open Learning Topic 2: Comparative Scales Overview Scaling techniques can be either comparative (where respondents are asked to compare two objects) or noncomparative (where objects are scaled independently of each other). We will start by considering the three types of comparative scaling techniques: 1.
Paired comparison scaling
: The respondents are asked to choose between two alternatives. The “Pepsi challenge” is probably the most famous example of this
—
participants in a taste test are asked to choose which beverage they prefer, and the test shows that most prefer Pepsi over Coke. This is the most common type of comparative scaling technique. 2.
Rank order scaling
: The respondents are asked to rank a list of alternatives. This produces ordinal level data and can be challenging for some respondents if they have no clear preferences. 3.
Constant sum scaling
: The respondents assign relative values to the alternatives. This produces more sophisticated data than rank order scaling
—
the degree of difference between alternatives is captured. It can be complicated for some respondents, so clear instructions are required to avoid potential mathematical errors. Activity 2: Identifying Primary Scales Introduction You have now been introduced to a lot of new language relating to scales of measurement. This activity is a self-test that tests your understanding of these terms and how they are applied. Try to complete the self-test without referring to the textbook or your notes. Instructions Part A: Textbook Review
Review the new terminologies relating to scales of measurement in Chapter 9. Part B: Self-Test 3
Complete the Self-Test 3 as follows:
After completing Part A of this activity, click Self-Test 3
below and answer the seven questions.
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MKTG 3481: Marketing Research 67 TRU Open Learning Topic 3: Noncomparative Scales Overview Noncomparative scales are the mostly commonly used scaling technique. With noncomparative scales, respondents evaluate only one variable at a time. There is no comparison made between variables. A continuous rating scale
is very similar to an itemized rating scale, but with a continuous rating scale, respondents can choose any values on a continuous scale rather than having to choose among some pre-determined values. The researcher then needs to code the respondent’s answer so that the data can be analyzed. This coding can take considerable time and is open to error, unless it uses electronic methods (such as online survey). Itemized rating scales
are far more commonly used. In an itemized rating scale, respondents choose between categories that are pre-determined by the researcher. You will probably remember completing a survey with a Likert scale
—
where a statement is given and you are asked to choose amongst alternatives that range from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree,” often on a five
-point scale. Likert scales are easy for the respondent to understand and respond to and are also easy for the researcher to tabulate and analyze. The Researc
h in Action box (“Happiness Is a Ford?”) on page 277 has a good example of the use of Likert scales.
Semantic differential scales
are seven-point scales where the end points are words with opposite meanings. Semantic scales are highly versatile, as the lists of adjectives you can ask about are limitless. The challenge is in choosing the right words, as words can have different meanings to different people, and it is essential to have consistency in understanding. The final form of noncomparative scaling technique is the Stapel scale
. With this scale, the respondent is offered a vertical scale ranging from –
5 to +5, with no neutral response offered. Stapel scales can be easier to construct than semantic differential scales, as you only need to find one adjective rather than a pair in Semantic differential scale. However, respondents may find it confusing and that they do not have enough information. This is probably the least frequently used of the noncomparative scales. Activity 3: Textbook Reading, Chapter 10 Introduction This activity provides you an opportunity to read about noncomparative scaling techniques.
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68 Module 4: Scaling TRU Open Learning Instructions Read Chapter 10, “Measurement and Scaling: Noncomparative Scaling Techniques.” Pay particular attention to this chapter’s Learning Object
ives 1, 2, 3, and 4. Also, reflect on how the diagrams, terminology, and vignettes referenced fit within the context of the chapter as a whole.
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MKTG 3481: Marketing Research 69 TRU Open Learning Topic 4: Noncomparative Scale Decisions Overview There are many decisions that need to be made when constructing a noncomparative scale. Careful consideration ensures that your questions are as specific and useful as possible. The first decision is the number of scale categories
, or choices, that the respondent is offered. The most common scales include five or seven choices. Odd numbers are most often used, so that there is a neutral point in the middle of the scale. Offering more choices can be confusing to the respondent (especially if the material is presented verbally, as in a telephone interview), but doing so can produce more precise information. Fewer choices will not capture as much information. However when the sample size is small, fewer choices should be offered. The second consideration is whether the scale will be balanced. In a balance scale, the number of favourable and unfavourable is equal. Most scales are balanced, so that the respondent is not encouraged to respond in a certain way because there are more options available. Unbalanced scales can be useful if the data is expected to be skewed in one direction, and more choices would help the researcher to collect more-specific information. The most common application is customer or employee satisfaction surveys, where the responses are expected to be generally positive and the researcher wants to understand more specifically how happy the respondents really are. The third decision is whether or not to have a neutral
midpoint
(whether to have odd or even numbers of categories). Most rating scales do offer a neutral point, and it can help respondents be more thoughtful about whether they are, on balance, positive or negative. It also provides the respondent who is truly neutral a fair answer. The fourth decision is whether the choice is forced or non-forced
. In a non-forced choice, the respondent is off
ered the option of “no opinion” or “not applicable.” This gives the disinterested or uninvolved respondent a fair answer to choose. However, if too many respondents (over 20% of the total sample) choose this option it may result in insufficient data for analysis. It is because they are considered missing values and provide no meaning to the research problem. The fifth decision is the nature and degree of verbal description
. Scales can be described verbally, numerically, or with pictures. The choice of words for scales can have a huge impact on the result, as people will interpret words differently. Words
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70 Module 4: Scaling TRU Open Learning and pictures can also provide important additional information that helps respondents make their choices. The final decision is the physical form or configuration
of the survey. The presentation of a scale can change how people respond to it. It is critical that the researcher test different presentation options to find out which respondents prefer. Figure 10.5 on page 282 of your textbook shows five different presentation formats. Activity 4: Create and Critique Scales Introduction You now have some understandings of the different types of scales used in survey design. In this exercise, you will create a question that uses a Likert scale or a semantic differential scale, and you will describe and justify your choices. You will also discuss and critique others’ scales. This is great preparation for the work that you will do in designing your own survey for your next assignment. Instructions Part A: Create a Scale
Think about the marketing research problem you are working on for your assignments, and create a Likert or semantic differential scale that could be used as part of your survey research. Take time to consider the six decisions made by researchers that are discussed on pages 280 to 283 in the textbook. Part B: Post to Discussion 4.1
—
Scales
Make an original posting to Discussion 4.1
—
Scales
that includes the following:
Make the subject of your posting the type of scale that you have chosen to use (Likert or semantic differential scale).
Include the text of the question and the scale in the body of the email (rather than an attachment).
Identify the six decisions that you made, and for each, discuss the trade-offs that were made with those choices. Part C: Respond in Discussion 4.1
—
Scales
Respond to one other person’s posting of a sample scale question with the following:
How did you find the wording of the question? Was it clear? Confusing?
Did you have any issues with the scale that was used? Are there suggestions you would make for improvement? Part D: In Your Journal
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MKTG 3481: Marketing Research 71 TRU Open Learning Reflect on what you have learned about creating scales, and document these reflections in your journal. You will be applying the learning in your next assignment.
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72 Module 4: Scaling TRU Open Learning Topic 5: Scale Evaluation Overview Scales are evaluated against two criteria:
Reliability
Validity Reliability
is the “repeatability” of the measurement—
if a survey is reliable, you can be confident that the same results would be found if the survey were repeated. Reliability means that there is no random error. Validity
refers to whether we actually measure what we are setting out to measure
—
how accurate is our measurement. Validity is a higher standard than reliability because if a scale is valid, it is by definition reliable. On the contrary, a measurement can be reliable but not valid. For example, if we were trying to test an applicant’s suitability for a sales job, would a test of physical strength be a good choice? How about a test relating to understanding closing techniques? We can have consistent results when repeating the test (i.e., reliable), but the results are irrelevant (i.e., invalid).
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MKTG 3481: Marketing Research 73 TRU Open Learning Topic 6: Questionnaire Design Overview Questionnaires are the primary tool used to collect data in survey research. A good questionnaire will help researchers to ensure that they are collecting the most useful data, in a way that can be coded, analyzed, and compared. Good questionnaires meet three main objectives: 1.
To gather the desired information. 2.
To encourage unbiased participation. 3.
To minimize response errors (inaccuracies or miscoding). Questionnaire design is more complex than you might imagine. Researchers will carefully construct a questionnaire and test it repeatedly to ensure that it is good enough to proceed. Table 11.3 on pages 319 and 320 of your textbook provides a great checklist that covers the ten steps of questionnaire design in detail. All of these are important, and you should read the material with a mindset of implementing them in your next assignment. The Research in Action boxes in this chapter provides some great examples of how these principles are applied in the field. The Research in Action box on pages 302 and 303 in your textbook shows the effect of interviewing method on the questionnaire design. In addition, making your questionnaire accessible, meaningful, and fun to your target respondent group is crucial. You may have to trade off some of the long list of information that you would like to gather against the limitations of what you can realistically expect respondents to provide, given their time constraints, memories, and sensitivity about revealing personal information. Every question in a survey deserves special attention. Do not include questions that do not provide valuable information, as this will just annoy or confuse the respondents. Also, be careful to only ask one question at a time. “Double
-
barrelled” questions are confusing to respondents, who are often unable to provide one answer to two questions. Be sure to qualify respondents so that you are getting answers that are as informed as possible. With regard to the specific questions, the first consideration is whether to ask an unstructured (often described as “open
-
ended”). You should consider the complexity in coding open-ended questions. Structured questions can use scales that you reviewed in the last few topics, or they can use specific multiple-choice or dichotomous responses. For structured questions, careful attention must be paid to
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74 Module 4: Scaling TRU Open Learning the order of the alternatives, as there is a bias for respondents to choose responses based on their order in the list. Question wording must be carefully considered and tested. The textbook demonstrates a great example on page 311 of using the W’s technique as a checklist to ensure that the question is clearly defined in all four dimensions (who, what, where and when). Common issues include complexity, ambiguous words, and leading or biased questions. Questions also must be carefully ordered to go from the more general to the more specific. Opening questions help to introduce the topic and engage respondents. Typically, demographic questions are asked at the very end of the questionnaire. The respondent has to be warmed up first before they feel comfortable to offer personal information. Sometimes, questions need to be asked in a certain order because they will branch out to different parts of the survey. Once the questions are confirmed, an appropriate layout and a form of reproduction should be chosen. Pretesting the questionnaire with a small sample of respondents face to face should also be conducted. This can eliminate potential errors. Activity 5: Textbook Reading, Chapter 11 Introduction You can now read from your textbook about designing questionnaires. Instructions Read Chapter 11, “Questionnaire and Form Design.” As you read, pay particular attention to the chapter’s Learning Objectives 1, 2, and 3. Also, pay attention to the diagrams, definitions, and vignettes that were referenced in the preceding topic, and see how they fit within the context of the chapter as a whole. Activity 6: Critique a Questionnaire Introduction In this activity, you will review and critique a draft questionnaire as preparation for creating your own. You will download files from the textbook website that include a project proposal and draft version of the survey questionnaire, and reflect on how it could be improved. Instructions Part A: Download the Files
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MKTG 3481: Marketing Research 75 TRU Open Learning You will be completing the Experiential Learning exercise “Designing a Survey Questionnaire” on page 318 of your t
extbook. The two files that you need are in the companion website for Basic Marketing Research
(4th ed.) at http://wps.prenhall.com/bp_malhotra_bmr_4
. Once at the site, do the following:
Click Downloads
.
Click Experiential_Learning_Files.zip
.
Open the zipped folder.
Choose the two files 3 Meteor proposal.doc
and 11 Meteor Survey A.doc
.
Save the files to your desktop. Part B: In Your Journal
1.
Review the marketing research proposal, 3 Meteor proposal.doc
(this document will give you some background on the project). 2.
Review 11 Meteor Survey A
, and consider the questions in the textbook. How could you improve the survey draft, and how could you make it more appealing to the respondent? Use the ten questionnaire design considerations to be sure your answer is complete. Document your reflections and improvements in your journal, and get ready to apply them in your next assignment. Part C: Check Your Recommendations
Take a few minutes to compare your answers with this example answer document below. Are there some ideas here that you missed? Assignment 4: Survey Research (10%) Read the instructions below. Complete Assignment 4 and submit it to your Open Learning Faculty Member.
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76 Module 5: Sampling TRU Open Learning Module 5: Sampling Overview While the individual man is an insoluble puzzle, in the aggregate he becomes a mathematical certainty. You can, for example, never foretell what any one man will do, but you can say with precision what an average number will be up to. Individuals vary, but percentages remain constant. —
Sherlock Holmes, in Sir Arthur Conan Doyle’s The Sign of Four
, 1899 (Source: http://www.literature.org/authors/doyle-arthur-conan/sign-of-four/chapter-
10.html) In this module, we will focus on the sampling techniques that you will use to conduct your survey. Generally, you conduct a survey in the hope that it will improve your understanding of a target population. It is very important that you carefully consider who you will ask your questions of
—
are those people representative of your target population? Many of the simplest sampling techniques may include significant sampling error and may not be the best choice if your purpose is to make generalized statements about the population. It is also important that your choice be cost-effective that have high sampling efficiency. Module 5 Topics Module 5 covers five topics:
Topic 1: The Concept of Sampling
Topic 2: The Sampling Design Process
Topic 3: Non-Probability Sampling
Topic 4: Probability Sampling
Topic 5: Internet Sampling In Topic 1
, you will discuss the concept of sampling. In an ideal world, you would conduct a census in which the entire population is consulted. In practice, this is rarely possible, so you must decide on how to select a group of respondents. This is the purpose of the sampling plan. Topic 2
will examine the sampling design process (and the resulting sampling plan) in detail. The process clearly outlines the decisions that must be made and the information that is required to fully outline the plan. All of this information is critical, as an incomplete plan may result in significant sampling error.
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MKTG 3481: Marketing Research 77 TRU Open Learning Non-probability sampling and probability sampling will be discussed in Topic 3
and Topic 4
, respectively. In non-probability sampling, respondents are not chosen randomly but, rather, on some choices made by the researcher. In probability sampling, respondents are chosen by a technique that includes some elements of randomness, and the results can be generalized to the target population. Topic 5
is about Internet sampling, which looks at the limitations and opportunities of using technology to sample your population. Outcomes After you have completed the work in this module, you will be able to:
Identify which situations are better suited to a census or a survey.
Describe the sampling design process and identify the major elements in a sampling plan.
Compare non-probability and probability sampling techniques.
Recommend the best sampling technique for different situations and defend that recommendation.
Explain the benefits and limitations of using the Internet for sampling. Required Resources In addition to the textbook, the resources you will need to work through this module are listed here. They are websites for the companies considered in the “BE an MR!” exercises:
http://www.polo.com
http://www.fortune.com
http://www.amazon.com Assignments Checkpoint There is no graded assignment in this module, but the coursework will be covered in Assignment 5 at the end of Module 6. Module 5 Activities All the activities in Module 5 are related to the learning outcomes and prepare you for Assignment 5 and the final exam.
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78 Module 5: Sampling TRU Open Learning Textbook Readings This module covers materials from Chapter 12 of your textbook. Make sure you review the summary at the end of the chapter. Activity and Assessments Checklist We recommend that by the end of this module you complete all activities and assessments in the order listed here: ✓
Complete and check off: Activity 1: Textbook Reading, Chapter 12 Activity 2: Introduction to Sampling Technique Activity 3: Reviewing a Sampling Plan Activity 4: Choosing Sampling Techniques (includes Discussion 5.1)
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MKTG 3481: Marketing Research 79 TRU Open Learning Topic 1: The Concept of Sampling Overview Now that you have designed your questionnaire, you need to consider who will complete it. If you had unlimited time and budget, the best information would come from a census
—
where everyone in your target population would complete the survey and you would have “complete” information. Usually that is only feasible with a very small population, for example with an industrial product or service or a very specialized or high-end consumer product or service. So, in the real world, market researchers almost always sample. This process of sampling creates sampling error. Sampling error
is the risk of omitting a major part of the target population by using a sample instead of a census. So, if you have not fully understood the factors that you need to take into account when choosing your sample, you may find in the end that your sample is not meaningful. By then, you have wasted time, money, and effort. Where the sampling error is really large, a census will be the best choice, and really the only choice to give you meaningful information. However, it is important to understand that non-sampling error is typically much greater than sampling error, so often it is not worth the extra time and effort to resolve the less-significant sampling error. The more significant non-sampling errors would still remain, despite our best efforts to choose the sample carefully. We discussed non-sampling error briefly in Module 1, and it is described on page 81 of your textbook. Non-sampling error
includes errors in all of the other elements of marketing research
—
not defining the problem correctly, wording a question imprecisely, interviewer bias, and many other issues. In the absence of a census, you will need to plan your sampling design and procedures. A sample
is a subgroup of the target population that is hopefully representative of the population. Sampling makes sense when the target population is very large and/or if the cost of conducting the survey (for example, in providing a food product for a taste test) is high. Sampling can also be conducted in a much less obvious way than census research, enabling the marketer to maintain some trade “secrets” about the products and marketing strategies they are testing.
Activity 1: Textbook Reading, Chapter 12 Introduction You will now read about sampling design and procedures. While reading, you may find it helpful to underline or summarize key points to reinforce your
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80 Module 5: Sampling TRU Open Learning understanding. You will also find definitions key terms and concepts highlighted in the margins. These key terms are compiled in a list at the end of each chapter and are important to understand. Instructions Read Chapter 12, “Sampling: Design and Procedures,” paying attention to all Learning Objectives, particularly 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.
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MKTG 3481: Marketing Research 81 TRU Open Learning Topic 2: The Sampling Design Process Overview The sampling design process is laid out in Figure 12.3 on page 337 of your textbook. The first step in the process is to define the target population
. Your target population will depend on the marketing research problem that you are facing. You may be focusing your research efforts on:
Current, versus prospective, customers
Men, versus women
Heavy, versus occasional, users It is important to note that this target population may or may not be your current customers. You will need to consider how narrowly you will define your target population and how you will find respondents that meet this target. Your target population is defined along four dimensions: 1.
Element
: the person from whom the information is desired 2.
Sampling unit
: may be the element (e.g., women over 60 years old) or another way of capturing the information needed from the element (households that contain women over 60 years old) 3.
Timeframe
: the time period of interest 4.
Extent
: the geographical boundary of the area of interest The second step is to determine the sampling frame
. The sampling frame is a list or set of instructions for identifying the target population. If you have a very specific target population, and if it overlaps with your current customer base, the sampling frame may be easy to construct. If a copy store was interested in conducting research with its largest customers, it could compile that list from its own records. However, usually coming up with the list is not that easy. Very often, the lists available are too general. In addition, a lot of information is considered private, such as telephone numbers, ages, and other demographic information. The authors of the textbook review the example of using the telephone book as a source of phone numbers for households. Even a source that seems so common and complete has the potential for sampling frame error. Three suggestions are made for managing sampling error: 1.
Redefine the population to fit the sampling frame.
This makes it clear where the sample is coming from, but it does not solve the limitations of that sampling frame.
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82 Module 5: Sampling TRU Open Learning 2.
Correct the profile match of the target population.
Here you would set quotas to ensure that you get a sample that is representative on those profile elements. You may not know which profile elements are the most important, though! 3.
Reweight the data.
Similarly to the second method, you would reweight the data to make it representative of the profile of the target. Again, you may not choose the right profile elements. The third step is to select a sampling technique,
and here you have two choices
—
non-probability sampling and probability sampling. In non-probability sampling
, the researcher relies upon his or her own judgment about who to select for the survey, rather than relying strictly on chance. While these results are simpler to gather, the data may not be a precise reflection of the target market. The researcher will be seeking the most convenient responders rather than a representative sample. So, for example, a female researcher in her twenties may be more likely to approach other twenty-something females to complete a mall intercept survey. With non-
probability sampling, the researcher must be very cautious about projecting these research results onto the population. We will discuss non-probability sampling in more detail in the next topic. Probability sampling
involves using a truly random sampling technique. This randomness actually makes the survey results more precise and, therefore, more representative of the population. Take a moment to re-read that sentence to be sure it makes sense to you. By choosing randomly, you are more confident that you have gotten a good cross-section of the target population. We will discuss probability sampling more in Topic 4. Tables 12.4 and 12.5 on page 351 offer a comparison of probability and non-probability sampling but will make more sense once you have worked through Topics 3 and 4 and understand the vocabulary. The fourth step is to determine the sample size
. Larger sample sizes are more expensive and time consuming to gather, but, to a certain extent, they make the data more meaningful. Sample size will vary with several factors:
Importance of the decision
: more important decisions need more precise data and therefore tend to larger sample sizes.
Nature of the research
: conclusive research requires large sample sizes; exploratory research typically uses small samples.
Number of variables
: more variables will require larger sample sizes.
Nature of the analysis
: if the researcher is interested in conducting sophisticated research and/or in analyzing subgroups, a larger sample size is needed.
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MKTG 3481: Marketing Research 83 TRU Open Learning
Sample sizes used in similar studies
: Table 12.2 on page 340 reviews the industry standard for sample sizes for different research studies.
Resource constraints
: larger studies take more time and money. One more factor that affects sample size but isn’t discussed in the textbook is the degree of homogeneity of the population. A population that is very homogeneous is one that doesn’t have a lot of varia
tions or variability. That population would need a smaller sample size than a population that is very diverse. All of these decisions are ultimately reflected in a sampling plan
. A sampling plan typically consists of five sections: 1.
A definition of the target population and its rate of incidence in the population at large 2.
The recommended sample type and rationale 3.
The recommended sample size and rationale 4.
The recommended sampling frame and rationale 5.
The recommended sample unit selection process and rationale Now that the design is complete, the final step is to execute the sampling process. The researcher needs to include procedures for qualifying respondents, making callbacks, and making other decisions. Activity 2: Introduction to Sampling Technique Introduction In this activity, you will reflect on the differences among a census, a probability sample, and a nonprobability sample. The choice of which technique to use requires a trade-off among cost, time and accuracy. Instructions Part A: Assignment 2 Reflection
When you completed the surveys for Assignment 2 in the previous module, you had to decide who would respond to your survey. Take some time to reflect on these questions: 1.
How did you decide to conduct your survey
—
using a census, probability sample, or nonprobability sample? What were the reasons underlying your decision? It is okay that you made your decision before you had even considered these terms
—
your situation was a real-world, practical one, and you made a real-world, practical decision.
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84 Module 5: Sampling TRU Open Learning 2.
What are some of the issues that go along with your choice? Consider the alternative ways that you could have approached your survey. What are the costs, amount of time, and quality of trade-offs that you would make to do it differently? Part B: In Your Journal
Reflect on what you have learned about choosing the respondents for your survey, and document these reflections in your journal. In your next assignment (in Module 6), you will be asked to include a proposal for a larger-scale survey for your research problem. So, if you had more time and money, how might you approach this?
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MKTG 3481: Marketing Research 85 TRU Open Learning Topic 3: Non-Probability Sampling Overview Non-probability sampling is probably the way that you completed your survey for Assignment 4. You did not have much time or budget, so you probably used a convenience sample, based on whom you could get to respond to your survey the fastest, so that you could complete your assignment and move on. Researchers are often under similar pressures, so non-probability sampling is used. It is much quicker and cheaper than probability sampling, and the answers, while less accurate, are often considered good enough for much of the research conducted in industry. The types of non-probability sampling techniques are illustrated in Figure 12.8 on page 342 of your textbook. Convenience sampling
involves selecting respondents that are most convenient for the researcher to work with. Here, no particular group or demographic is specifically sought, other than perhaps a behavioural factor such as people that shop at a certain store at a certain time. Convenience sampling is simple and fast. The biggest problem is that the sample is not representative of the population. If you choose to do mall intercepts at 10 a.m. rather than 8 p.m. on a weekday, what do you think will be different about those two samples? In addition, as we discussed before, researchers doing mall intercepts may be more comfortable approaching people that are like them
—
so you will end up with a sample with demographics that mimic your researchers, not your target population. Judgmental sampling
is a bit more sophisticated than convenience sampling. Here, the researcher considers what the important elements of the population are, based on his or her own judgment, and then selects a sample that represents those elements. The most common example of this is in new product testing. Researchers will often choose a test market for a new product that they believe is representative of the entire market. It is often important to preserve the confidentiality of a new product offer, and restricting exposure to a limited test market is the surest way to do that. This technique relies heavily on the expertise and judgment of the researcher. In quota sampling
, the researcher will identify what he or she believes are relevant categories in the target population and will ensure that the sample contains a similar concentration of those categories. Have you ever gotten a phone call from a market researcher (during dinner-time, usually) and their first question asks your age or something similar? Sometimes you will answer that one question and then be kindly thanked for your time and you can go back to your dinner without it even getting cold! The researcher is probably working on filling a quota, and your age group is
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86 Module 5: Sampling TRU Open Learning already adequately represented, so they do not need your participation in the survey. Quota samples are not always exactly representative of the target population. Sometimes researchers will oversample in a certain category if that input is more valuable. So, for example, when Lululemon (the yoga clothing store) decides that it wants to expand its target market to attract more men, it may decide to oversample men in order to get lots of input from them. Quota sampling is a very common research technique. While it still does not allow for generalizations to the population, if the right elements are chosen, it provides better information than a simple convenience sample. Snowball sampling
is a technique where the initial respondents are asked to identify others who belong to the target population. Other than the first few random participants, the sample is mostly built based on referrals. How would you feel if your friend suggested you for a survey? This technique is usually only used where the target population is very specific. So, if you were a serious athlete and Nike was developing a new, high-tech running shoe, and your teammate suggested you for their survey, you might be interested enough in having an impact in your field that you would not mind the call. Sometimes, this is the only way to identify a target market with very specific characteristics or expertise, especially for industrial products.
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MKTG 3481: Marketing Research 87 TRU Open Learning Topic 4: Probability Sampling Overview When probability sampling techniques are used, it means that at some level, the survey results can be generalized to the target population. As you might imagine, these survey techniques are considerably more sophisticated and expensive than non-probability techniques. They require you to really understand your target population and then do significant screening to be sure that you are getting the right level of participation. The most common example of probability sampling in the real world is national political surveys, which are subject to intense public discussion and scrutiny and therefore need to be statistically significant and defensible. In simple random sampling
, the sample is drawn at random. The most common application of this is probably random-digit dialling, in which a computer generates a random list of telephone numbers for a telephone survey. This technique requires that you are sure that all respondents have an equal chance of getting picked, which means that you need to know that your sampling frame includes all the respondents. This can be difficult to achieve. Also, you will need to have a large sample in order for it to be representative of the target population. Systematic sampling
involves starting at a random starting point and then choosing the sample based on a fixed interval. So, if there are 100 customers for a product and you have planned a sample size of 20, you will ask every fifth person to participate. This method makes sense if there is some order that the respondents can be arranged in, and if you have a complete list of the target population. The easiest application is with current customers. You can arrange them by size or by purchase quantity and be assured that your sample will contain a good cross-section. Stratified sampling
involves dividing the population into subgroups from which respondents are then chosen randomly. This approach reduces sampling variation and cost and is relatively simple to organize with a little advance planning. The subgroups (or “strata”) are chosen based on variables that relate to the characteristic of interest. Two to six strata are formed, and it is important that everyone within the strata is similar on the key elements but different from other strata. Finally, cluster sampling
divides the population into clusters. Then, a random sample of clusters is selected, and within each cluster either everyone is included (one-stage cluster sampling) or a random sample is selected (two-stage cluster sampling). There is a good description of the difference between cluster and stratified sampling in Table 12.3 on page 350. In cluster sampling, everyone within the cluster is different, and the clusters are similar to each other. This simplifies the research, because the researcher then only needs a sampling frame for the clusters
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88 Module 5: Sampling TRU Open Learning that are randomly chosen to be included in the sample. The result is a lower cost piece of research. Now that you have a good understanding of non-probability and probability sampling, take a few moments to consider the comparisons between them in Tables 12.4 and 12.5 on page 351 of your textbook. Activity 3: Reviewing a Sampling Plan Introduction In this activity, you will review and discuss a sampling plan for a large and expensive survey. You will download a file from the course textbook website that includes full documentation for a U.S. Department of Transportation omnibus survey. You will focus on the sampling plan from this document, and the questions are designed to test your understanding of our discussion of sampling. Instructions Part A: Download the Files
You will be completing the Experiential Learning exercise on the U.S. Department of Transportation Survey on page 352 of your textbook. You will find the file that you need at the textbook publisher’s website at http://wps.prenhall.com/bp_malhotra_bmr_4
. Once you are at the site, complete the following steps:
Click Downloads
.
Click Experiential_Learning_Files.zip
.
Unzip the folder.
Choose 12_USDOT_survey.pdf
. This is a huge file (178 pages) so you probably do not want to print more than what you need for this activity. The instructions direct you to the most important sections of the document (less than 10 pages), and you may want to print them. Part B: In Your Journal
Consider the questions posed in the Experiential Learning box on page 352. Document your answers in your journal, and make note of anything that you find confusing or unclear. You will need to make these types of sampling decisions as part of your next assignment, so being able to understand how these are made in the real world will help you with that assignment. Part C: Check Your Recommendations
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MKTG 3481: Marketing Research 89 TRU Open Learning Take a few minutes to compare your answers with this example answer document below. Are there some ideas here that you missed?
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90 Module 5: Sampling TRU Open Learning Topic 5: Internet Sampling Overview Technology is often used to help to increase the pace and reduce the cost of surveying. Using the Internet to conduct research does mean that your sample may not be representative of the target population. People who do not own computers, do not have Internet access, or use the Internet infrequently may be under-
represented. Internet surveys are most applicable for industrial products and some consumer products and services that are computer related. Email surveys are the typical means of conducting internet sampling. Surveys such as those simply posted on a website for anyone to respond to face significant sampling errors and for any important marketing research purpose are generally not done. There are several ways to conduct sampling on the Internet, and Figure 12.12 at the top of page 354 illustrates these. Online intercept sampling is similar to a mall intercept
—
visitors to a website might see a pop-up window inviting them to participate in a survey. Visitors who have blocked pop-up windows will not be included in this sample. Internet panels are a group of respondents that have been formed to answer questions over time. Panels may be recruited or solicited from an email invitation. Other techniques may be used to conduct an Internet survey, such as providing customers with a flyer in the store with an invitation to participate in an online survey when they return home. Activity 4: Choosing Sampling Techniques Introduction This chapter contains a “BE an MR!” (market researcher) boxes, each of which
holds an application exercise. Together, these exercises provide a thorough and practical review of sampling design. In this activity, you will work through some of these application exercises, review the answers of others, and post your own thoughts to the Discussions
area. Instructions Part A: Consider the Situations
Work through the following five “BE an MR!” exercises:
1.
Page 336: Boeing: Spreading Its Wings
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MKTG 3481: Marketing Research 91 TRU Open Learning 2.
Page 345: Unisex Shirts: Sampling Gender Inequalities Affirmatively 3.
Page 348: Dell: Targeting Fortune
500 Companies 4.
Page 350: Herbal Essences: Introducing New Products is of the Essence 5.
Page 355: Is Online Sampling for Amazon? Part B: Discussion 5.1
—
Sampling
Choose two of the five scenarios proposed in Part A to consider. Make one posting for each of the two scenarios. Your postings may be an original answer to the question or a response to another student’s posting. Here are some guidelines:
Make the subject of your posting the company or industry that you are considering (Boeing, Polo Ralph Lauren, Dell, Amazon, or Herbal Essences).
Include your choice and a clear description of your rationale. If you are agreeing with a previous poster, add your own reasoning. If you are disagreeing, describe why and how you made the trade-off differently. Many answers are possible. Take a moment to review any of the other postings under Discussion 5.1
—
Sampling
. Consider whether you agree or disagree with them. If there are no other postings, proceed to Part C, but return to this discussion later in the course to reflect on others’ answers.
Part C: In Your Journal
Consider what you have learned about the choice of sampling technique. How did you and others make the trade-off between cost and quality of data? Record your thoughts in your journal. These notes may be helpful when you move on to Assignment 5 in Module 6.
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92 Module 6: Data Analysis and Reporting TRU Open Learning Module 6: Data Analysis and Reporting Overview The outcome of any serious research can only be to make two questions grow where only one grew before. —
Thorstein Veblen (Source: http://www.quotationspage.com/quote/32057.html
) Take a moment to review Figure 1.4 on page 9 of your textbook. We covered Step 1 (defining the problem) and Step 2 (developing an approach) in Module 1 and Step 3 (formulating a research design) in modules 2, 3, 4, and 5. These steps are about planning. In this module, we will focus on the execution steps
—
Step 4 (data collection). This step is all about how to conduct efficient and effective field research. We will also cover Step 5 (preparing and analyzing data), and Step 6 (preparing and presenting the report). The approach that we have followed throughout the course has taken various constraints into consideration. If the research plan is well designed and planned, completion of the final stage of the research should be fairly straightforward. In the analysis and reporting stages, you should try to deliver what you set out to search (and re-search). See if you can demonstrate that the obtained information and your interpretations are useful enough for management to take action. Your responsibility is to mine the data, search for insights, and present the results logically in a research report (Assignment 5). Module 6 Topics Module 6 covers four topics:
Topic 1: Data Collection
Topic 2: Data Preparation
Topic 3: Data Analysis
Topic 4: Communicating the Research Results We begin the module with a discussion of data collection in Topic 1
. Assignment 4 in Module 4 required you to conduct a field survey research, so you have gained experience and skill in this area. In this topic, you will consider the responsibilities and skills required to conduct good field research, and discuss some of the more complex issues.
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MKTG 3481: Marketing Research 93 TRU Open Learning We will discuss data preparation in Topic 2
. In this topic, you will look at the issues surrounding coding and cleaning the data that has been collected. Once the data is cleaned, researchers will determine if the data is good enough to proceed. If the data is not in good shape
—
for example, if a large percentage of missing values in one or more questions
—
the researcher will have to consider whether it can be improved, perhaps by using estimation or removing the question(s) from the study. Spoiled responses can be expensive. In Topic 3
, we will
consider data analysis and discuss three approaches to data analysis: frequency distributions, cross-tabulations, and hypothesis testing. Frequency distributions (univariate analysis) describe single variables and have a range of statistical techniques that go with them. Cross-tabulations relate two or more variables to each other and are the usual way to summarize marketing research in the real world. Hypothesis testing involves structuring the data analysis to accept or reject a specific statement. You will be using frequency distributions and cross-tabulations for Assignment 5. Topic 4
is about communicating the results through a well-written report. The marketing research report is very comprehensive and documents the decisions and material that you have covered in the entire course. With the audience (managers) in mind, the final report should consider the importance of non-technical language in writing and presentation, such as the use of graphs, to enhance understanding and impact. Learning Outcomes After you have completed the work in this module, you will be able to:
Discuss the challenges involved in field research and identify the key skills to look for in training field researchers.
Conduct a data cleaning process in Excel.
Create a frequency distribution, conduct basic statistical analysis on the data, and summarize the results in clear language.
Create cross-tabulations, conduct basic statistical analysis on the data, and summarize the relationships in clear language.
Evaluate the use of graphs in report writing.
Critique and revise a paragraph of writing in a marketing research report.
Produce a marketing research report and a recommendation for further research.
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94 Module 6: Data Analysis and Reporting TRU Open Learning Required Resources In addition to the textbook, you will need these resources to work through this module:
The textbook’s second edition companion website (for data files) at http://wps.prenhall.com/bp_malhotra_bmr_4/
The textbook’s third edition companion website (for data files) at http://wps.prenhall.com/bp_malhotra_bmr_3/
Coca-
Cola’s website (to review the use of graphs in its annual report) at http://www.cocacola.com Assignments Checkpoint Assignment 5 (10%) and Assignment 6 (15%) are included in this module. Module 6 Activities All the activities in Module 6 are related to the learning outcomes and prepare you for the Assignment 5, Assignment 6, and the final exam. Textbook Readings This module covers materials from Chapters 14, 15, 16, and 19 of your textbook. Of these four chapters, Chapters 16 and 19 are the most important, so be sure to cover them thoroughly. Make sure you review the summary at the end of each chapter. Activity and Assessments Checklist We recommend that by the end of this module you complete all activities and assessments in the order listed here: ✓
Complete and check off: Activity 1: Textbook Reading, Chapter 14 Activity 2: Reflection on Your Fieldwork Experience Activity 3: Textbook Reading, Chapter 15 Activity 4: Data Preparation
—
Using Excel
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MKTG 3481: Marketing Research 95 TRU Open Learning Activity 5: Textbook Reading, Chapter 16 Activity 6: Data Analysis
—
Using Excel Activity 7: Textbook Reading, Chapter 19 Activity 8: Use of Graphs Activity 9: Revision of Report Paragraph (includes Discussion 6.1) Assignment 5: Research Report Assignment 6: Reflective Summary and Online Discussions
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96 Module 6: Data Analysis and Reporting TRU Open Learning Topic 1: Data Collection Overview Data collection is part of Step 4 in the marketing research process outlined in Figure 1.4 on page 9 of your textbook. Figure 14.3 at the bottom of page 393 of your textbook outlines the fieldwork/data collection process. Two of the biggest challenges in field research are recruiting and training good interviewers. These jobs are demanding
—
requiring great communication skills and a tenacity that lets the interviewer not get discouraged when potential respondents turn them down. Often, interviewers are paid a relatively low hourly rate or on a per-interview basis, and at times the compensation may not seem adequate to the level of skill required. The Research in Action box on page 394 outlines four psychographic clusters of interviewers. Does one of these types fit your personality? Training for fieldworkers is in many ways very similar to training for sales people. Typically, the interviewer is provided with a script that is very specific about what is to be asked or said. The interviewer also needs to have the ability to develop rapport with the respondent and needs to learn the timing that will give the fullest, most relevant responses. The most difficult questions for interviewers are open-ended questions, such as “why. . . ”? The interviewer must listen carefully and probe in ways that keep the respondent on topic but get deeper into their thoughts and ideas. Open-
ended questions like these can be very powerful in bringing customers’ and potenti
al customers’ reactions to the attention of senior executives. Quotations are often used in research reports, and getting a good and meaningful quote takes a lot of skill in probing and listening. The Research in Action box at the bottom of page 395 in your textbook illustrates how sophisticated interview skills can make a survey successful. Interviewers should be properly trained and carefully supervised. The quality of their work should be validated. Validation of fieldwork consists of verifying that fieldworkers are submitting authentic responses to the survey and not just making it up. You may recall that you have been asked for your name and phone number for confirmation purposes at the end of a survey. You may have even been called to verify that you were a bone fide survey participant. Marketing research firms pay close attention to response rates and quality of completed surveys. Often, fieldworkers will be paid on the basis of completed interviews, in which case a closer examination of quality is required.
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MKTG 3481: Marketing Research 97 TRU Open Learning Activity 1: Textbook Reading, Chapter 14 Introduction You will now read about field work and the data collection process. Instructions Read Chapter 14, “Field Work: Data Collection.” As you read, keep in mind this chapter’s Learning Objectives 1, 2
, and 3. Also, pay attention to the diagrams, definitions, and vignettes that were referenced in the preceding topics, and see how they fit within the context of the chapter as a whole. Activity 2: Reflection on Your Fieldwork Experience Introduction In Module 4, you completed a set of interviews in order to complete your assignment. In this activity, you will take some time to reflect on that experience and on your suitability as a fieldworker. Instructions Recall your experiences in conducting the survey in Assignment 4. In your journal, reflect on the following questions: 1.
How did you feel approaching respondents? Was this different when you approached friends or strangers? Did you change or improve your approach over time? 2.
What seemed to be the most challenging part of the survey for the respondents? What could you have done differently as the survey designer and/or as the interviewer to make it easier for them? 3.
If you were going to hire someone else to conduct a survey like this, what do you think would be the most important criteria for choosing a successful fieldworker? What support would you plan to provide for that person?
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98 Module 6: Data Analysis and Reporting TRU Open Learning Topic 2: Data Preparation Overview Data preparation is step 5 in the marketing research process outlined in Figure 1.4 on page 9 of your textbook. In this step, you will review the data that you have collected, edit it as required, code it, and select a data analysis strategy. The process is outlined in Figure 15.3 at the top of page 412. The opening vignette on page 409 describes how Sears prepared the data for its database, which covered an astounding 75% of all U.S. households. After building a plan for data analysis, the first active step in data preparation is checking the questionnaires. Questionnaires are removed from the study mainly because they are incomplete or they are outside the quotas that have been set. For this reason, it is extremely important that the fieldworker is able to give a realistic estimate of the time needed to complete the survey up front, or the respondent may get frustrated and abandon the survey process. Once the incomplete surveys are removed, the remaining ones are reviewed for accuracy and precision, a process known as editing
. The researcher will review the responses to make sure that they are complete, legible, and consistent. If a survey has problems, efforts will be made to return it to the field researchers for corrections. Occasionally, the researcher may assign responses to the problem questions, if the problems are relatively minor. Otherwise, these surveys will be discarded. This process is known as replacing missing value
. Coding
involves translating words or scale responses into numbers so that the responses can be analyzed as a group. The most difficult questions to code are open-
ended or unstructured questions. Interviewers will typically try to create codes for the most common answers and record outliers individually or under one code that represents “other responses.” Coding open
-ended questions requires a careful creation of categories for the different answers. It is important that the specific nature of the suggestions be captured as much as possible. The example on page 415 provides an example of coding of open-ended questions. Once the coding scheme has been decided, the data are transcribed into a computer file so that they can be analyzed. If an electronic survey method is used, this is done automatically as data is gathered. Once the data is recorded electronically, the market researcher will again examine the data for consistency and completeness, in a process known as data cleaning
. The computer helps by identifying issues such as out-of-range values (for example, a negative age), inconsistencies (for example, the respondent spends more on shampoo than they actually earn!), and missing responses. Each of these identified
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MKTG 3481: Marketing Research 99 TRU Open Learning issues needs to be examined and resolved by the researcher. The author of the textbook outlines three approaches to resolving missing responses: 1.
Substitute a neutral value, such as the mean. 2.
Casewise deletion, where respondents are not included in the analysis of questions they did not answer. 3.
Pairwise deletion, which is where the researcher uses only the respondents with complete responses for each calculations. Here, more data is included than in casewise deletion because only the specific variables in the calculation need to be complete. Finally, the researcher must choose a data analysis strategy
. This includes the statistical techniques that will be used to examine the data. The choice of measurement scales will have a strong impact on the statistical techniques that are possible with the data, and each question and scale must be considered individually. Activity 3: Textbook Reading, Chapter 15 Introduction You will now read about data preparation and the analysis strategy. Instructions Read Chapter 15, “Data Preparation and Analysis Strategy.” As you read, keep in mind this chapter’s Learning Objectives 1, 2, 3, and 4. Also, pay attention to the diagrams, definitions, and vignettes that were referenced in the preceding topic, and see how they fit within the context of the chapter as a whole. Activity 4: Data Preparation
—
Using Excel Introduction This activity will be your first introduction to the use of a computer program to prepare and analyze survey data. The textbook provides two alternative programs for doing this: SPSS Windows (a student version of this software may be included with your textbook) and Excel (part of the Windows Office suite, and used for many other applications as well). For the purposes of this course, you are instructed to use Excel, as it is a multi-purpose tool that does all of the important calculations that you need. Instructions Part A: Download the File
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100 Module 6: Data Analysis and Reporting TRU Open Learning You will be completing the software application exercise for Excel that begins on page 431 of your textbook. You will find the file that you need at the companion website for Basic Marketing Research
at http://wps.prenhall.com/bp_malhotra_bmr_4/
. The companion website provides materials for download in two types: (1) computerized demonstration movies, and (2) screen captures. Here, we choose the “screen captures” type as an example to illustrate how to download these materials. Once you are at the site, complete the following steps:
Click Downloads
.
Click Excel_2003_2007_2010_Screen_Captures.zip
.
Unzip the folder Excel Screen Captures
.
Choose the two files Table 15.1-Var Recoding
and Table 15.1-Var Respecification
. These files will show you how to do the data preparation exercise in Part B.
Save the files. Part B: Prepare the Data
Work through the instructions on page 431 to do the data preparation exercise (Variable Respecification and Variable Recoding), as required. You may find that you need to refer to the SPSS example discussed just before it to understand the recoding requirements. The textbook provides clear step-by-step instructions
—
follow them carefully, and contact your Open Learning Faculty Member if you need help. For Assignment 5, you will code and clean the data you collected in your survey, so be sure you understand these techniques.
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MKTG 3481: Marketing Research 101 TRU Open Learning Topic 3: Data Analysis Overview Data analysis is part of Step 5 in the marketing research process outlined in Figure 1.4 on page 9. Now that your data has been prepared, you will need to analyze the data. We will consider three techniques for data analysis in this course: 1.
Frequency distribution 2.
Cross-tabulation 3.
Hypothesis testing Notice that we are not covering the material in Chapters 17 and 18 on hypothesis testing related to differences: regression and correlation. While these are important approaches to data analysis, they are topics that were well covered in your statistics course, and they do not relate closely to the learning outcomes and learning activities in this course. Nonetheless, they are important techniques in data analysis for marketing research and should not be forgotten. Frequency Distribution Frequency distribution is a technique where a single variable is considered, and a count or relative frequency of different values is reported. This is one of the simpler methods of data analysis and is possible with a wide range of scaling techniques. Frequency distribution helps the researcher to identify out
–
of-range responses and extreme values. Frequency data is often portrayed in a bar chart, which shows the shape of the distribution of the variable. Your textbook contains an example of data from a Nike survey that includes the raw data (Table 16.1 on pages 440 and 441), the frequency distribution (Table 16.2 on page 441), and a bar chart (or histogram) of the results (Figure 16.4 on page 442). A frequency distribution can be summarized using some simple statistical techniques:
Measures of location
: These are different ways to describe the centre of the data, and include the mean, mode (most common response), and median (middle response).
Measures of variability
: These are statistics that describe how the data is spread out; they include the range (difference between the maximum and minimum values) and the standard deviation. The formulas for these calculations are all clearly described in your textbook and should be familiar from your introductory statistics course.
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102 Module 6: Data Analysis and Reporting TRU Open Learning Activity 5: Textbook Reading, Chapter 16 Introduction Take some time now to read about data analysis. Instructions Read Chapter 16, “Data Analysis: Frequency Distribution, Hypothesis Testing, and Cross-
Tabulation.” As you read,
keep in mind this chapter’s Learning Objectives 2, 4, and 5. Also, reflect on the diagrams, new terminology, and vignettes that were referenced in the preceding topic, and see how they fit within the context of the chapter as a whole. Cross-Tabulations Cross-tabulations enable the researcher to examine how different variables associate with each other. The most common example of this is the researcher who wants to know how different demographic groups respond to particular questions. For example, is the new flavour of soda that Coca-Cola is considering introducing more popular with men or women; or with older consumers or younger consumers? Cross-tabulations are presented in tables that relate two or more variables simultaneously. Table 16.3 on page 452 provides an example of a simple cross-tab that relates gender to usage data. It shows that men are more likely to be heavy users and women are more likely to be light users. The same data is expressed as percentages in Table 16.4 page 452 and in Table 16.5 on page 453. The percentages are often easier to read and understand than the raw data, so both are typically presented as part of the research report. Cross-tabulations are widely used in marketing because this data provides valuable information to marketers and managers about how users respond. It contains much more information than a single-variable frequency distribution but is very simple and easy to understand compared with some of the more sophisticated statistical techniques. It is a practical approach. Once a cross-tab has been performed and a table presented, it is important for the researcher to consider the statistical significance of the cross-tabulated variables. Tests of statistical significance measure whether the difference in results between two groups could be explained as having come about by chance. Let us start with a simple example. Respondents are asked which of four flavours of a new cola they prefer. If there were no reason to expect that they would prefer one to the others, the preferences would be expected to be equal for all four flavours. However, when you conduct the research, you find that more respondents preferred one flavour to the others.
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MKTG 3481: Marketing Research 103 TRU Open Learning Let us say the data look like this: Research results Expected preference Difference Difference squared Chi-
square Flavour A 50 25 25 625 25 Flavour B 10 25 -15 225 9 Flavour C 15 25 -10 100 4 Flavour D 25 25 0 0 0 TOTAL 100 100 38 In this case, chi-square is 38, which is definitely statistically significant
—
there was such a strong preference for Flavour A that you can be quite certain that this did not happen by chance. The same principles apply to the two-way table that is used to summarize cross-
tabulations. The author of the textbook walks through an example of this calculation on pages 453 to 457 of your textbook. Take some time to review this. If the data is statistically significant, the researcher must then determine the strength of association. Different calculations are used depending on the nature of the data. A phi coefficient is the measure for a 2 x 2 table, the contingency coefficient can be used with a table of any size, and Cramer’s V
is used for tables larger than 2 x 2. Hypothesis Testing We discussed hypotheses in Module 1 when we discussed how the marketing research problem is translated into more-specific research components and hypotheses. Hypothesis testing is an approach to research in which a declarative statement is made and the research is structured to test whether that hypothesis is true. The Research in Action example at the top of page 451 illustrates hypothesis testing. In this example, in an attempt to increase its market share, InterContinental Hotels Group (IHG) is considering whether it should open other hotel chains for middle-
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104 Module 6: Data Analysis and Reporting TRU Open Learning class hotel customers that would have more stylish rooms. In order to answer this question, the company could conduct a hypothesis test. Activity 6: Data Analysis
—
Using Excel Introduction In this activity, you will get some practical experience using Excel to conduct some data analysis. You will later be applying these same techniques in Assignment 5, so be sure to complete this activity carefully and identify any questions you have about the process. Instructions Part A: Download the File
You will be completing the software application exercise for Excel that begins on page 466 of your textbook. You will find the file that you need at the companion website for Basic Marketing Research
at http://wps.prenhall.com/bp_malhotra_bmr_4/
. Once at the site, do the following:
Click Downloads
.
Click Input_Data_Chapter_Tables.zip
.
Unzip the folder.
Choose Input Data Chapter Tables for Excel
.
Choose the file Table 16.1 Ex
.
Save the file. Part B: Analyze the Data
Work through the instructions on page 466. Do not be distracted by the Experiential Learning box on page 465. It is a different topic, so follow the instructions on the white pages only. These instructions will guide you through creating a frequency distribution and cross-tabulations on this data. You can check your answers against the material presented in the chapter. The textbook provides clear, step-by-step instructions
—
follow them carefully, and contact your Open Learning Faculty Member if you need help. For Assignment 5, you need to analyze the data you collected in your survey, so be sure you understand these techniques.
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MKTG 3481: Marketing Research 105 TRU Open Learning Topic 4: Communicating the Research Results Overview Communicating the research results by preparing and presenting the marketing research report is the sixth and final step in the marketing research process outlined in Figure 1.4 on page 9 of your textbook. There are typically two major documents that are produced to support a major marketing research project. The first is the marketing research proposal
, which was discussed in Module 1. The second we will discuss now, the marketing research report
. The major sections of the report are reviewed on pages 550
–
553 of your textbook. The executive summary is the most important section of the document, because it may be the only section of the document that many busy senior executives and board members actually read. For that reason, the executive summary must have enough information to be able to stand alone without reading the rest of the document, and at the same time be very focused on the results, conclusions, and recommendations of the research. Executive summaries are very short, one or two pages, but it includes: 1.
The chosen product and its associated management problem and marketing research problem 2.
The explanation why the research was undertaken 3.
The goals of the study (i.e. what it set out to do) 4.
What the procedures and methods are 5.
Major findings, recommendations, and conclusions of the study We have discussed most of the major sections of the report in detail in past modules. The problem definition, approach to the problem, and research design were all part of Module 1. The data collection methods discussed in Modules 2 and 3 and the survey techniques discussed in Modules 4 and 5 will also contribute to the section on research design. The remaining topics are covered as part of this module, so let us look at them in more detail. The data analysis section will describe the technique and justify the techniques used. It is very short and straightforward. The results section is typically the longest section of the report and will likely rely heavily on table, graphs, or appendices that contain summaries of the data. Important data and tables should be included in the discussions and results section, but longer lists or tables of data should be placed near the end of the document as appendix. It is critical that the information is
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106 Module 6: Data Analysis and Reporting TRU Open Learning organized in a very clear, logical, and consistent manner, so that readers can follow the discussions easily. A section that is sometimes overlooked is the one on limitations and caveats. It is important for the researcher to acknowledge the trade-offs that were made in terms of cost/time vs. accuracy and completeness of information. It is equally important to suggest future directions of the study. Finally, the researchers will present their conclusions and recommendations. The researchers are often in a unique position of having extensive understanding of the marketing research problem and the results of the research, at the same time being independent from the company. Generally, management will carefully consider the suggestions of the researchers but will temper them with the big picture view that management has of the overall business. It is important that the report be presented in simple, non-technical language. It needs to be written in a way that the non-marketing research expert (most senior managers would fall into this category) can read it, understand it, and use it to make management decisions. It is also very important to carefully consider how data is presented. Statistical tables should be organized in a consistent way and should include clear headings, source notes, titles, sample size (n=), units of measure, and comments. Data presented in graphical format is often easier to understand, as one picture is worth a thousand words. Different graphics are appropriate for different messages:
Maps
: Show locations and relationships between locations
Pie charts
: Show distribution of a specific variable
Line charts
: Show trends and changes over time, often for multiple variables
Pictographs
: Use symbols, often in a bar-chart format, and are not often used in formal marketing research reports
Histograms and bar charts
: Present magnitudes, differences, changes, and frequencies
Flow charts
: Demonstrate steps, components of a process, or classifications Activity 7: Textbook Reading, Chapter 19 Introduction Now, read about report preparation and presentation.
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MKTG 3481: Marketing Research 107 TRU Open Learning Instructions Read Chapter 19
, “Report Preparation and Presentation.” As you read, keep in mind this chapter’s Learning Objectives 1, 2, 3, and 4. Also, pay attention to the diagrams, definitions, and vignettes that were referenced in the preceding topic, and see how they fit within the context of the chapter as a whole. Activity 8: Use of Graphs Introduction In this activity, you will review the annual report of Coca-Cola and consider the company’s use of graphs to present corporate data. Instructions Part A: Review the Annual Report
The instructions for this activity are on page 557 in the “BE an MR!” box. You are asked to visit http://www.coca-colacompany.com/investors/
and read the company’s latest annual report. Look for the tab Financial Reports and Information
. Consider the graphs used and how effective they are. Consider other areas where you think graphs could improve the report. Part B: In Your Journal
Take a few moments to record your thoughts in your journal. Reflect on the power of visual aids and note how they can help or hinder your communications. You will be asked to use graphs in your next assignment, where you will apply what you have learned about graphs. Activity 9: Revision of a Report Paragraph Introduction This activity will give you the opportunity to improve the writing of a paragraph of a research report to make it simpler and easier for a non-marketing research expert to understand. This is great preparation for your last assignment at the end of this module. Instructions Part A: Review the Paragraph
Read Applied Problem 1 on page 568. Consider ways that you could improve this paragraph to make it more accessible
to the client. Part B: Discussion 6.1
—
Communicating Results
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108 Module 6: Data Analysis and Reporting TRU Open Learning Make an original posting to Discussion 6.1
—
Communicating Results
and include your rewritten paragraph. You may want to split the information into multiple paragraphs and/or use subtitles
—
that is your choice. Part C: In Your Journal
Take a few moments to review any other postings that other students have made in Discussions. What are the differences between your revised draft and theirs? Did they try something that you think worked better? Document your thoughts and reactions in your journal and keep these ideas in mind as you prepare your final assignment and for your final exam. Clear communication is an essential part of relevant marketing research. Assignments Below, see the instructions for Assignment 5: Research Report and Assignment 6: Reflective Summary and Online Discussion. Complete Assignment 5 and Assignment 6 and submit them to your Open Learning Faculty Member. Final Exam To help you prepare for your final exam, take the Practice Exam and read Resources for Students: Practice and Final Exams.
Remember to apply for the final exam. Visit TRU-
OL’s website or contact Student Services or the Exams Department if you need more information.
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