Midterm #2 lecture notework

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San Diego State University *

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BA 350

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Management

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Feb 20, 2024

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docx

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Uploaded by ChefMorning13464

1. Exam 1. Review a. Which of the following is true? i. OB takes a contingency approach, meaning we tailor our managerial approach to fit the situation b. Diversity in functional background is the best way for people to perform c. Research indicates all of the following increase job satisfaction except: i. Mentally challenging work ii. Equitable Rewards iii. Equal Rewards ←—----- answer iv. Supportive working conditions v. All of the above increase job satisfaction d. Which of the following show the highest correlation with task performance? i. IQ ←—- Answer ii. EQ iii. Conscientiousness iv. Age v. Employee Pay CH 6. Perception and decision making ● Perception Overview ○ Definition - A process by which individuals organize and interpret there sensory impressions to give meaning to their environment ○ General Process - Organizing our sensory impressions to make sense of the world around us ○ Why do we care? - Actions or Reactions, influence the way that us or our employees behave is based on our perception of them ● Factors that Influence perception ○ Factors in the perceiver: Attitudes, Motives/expectations, Personality, Moods/emotions, Experiences ○ Situational Factors: Time, Setting, Culture ○ Factors in the target: Size, Intensity, Contrast, Motion, Familiarity ■ Attitudes that we hold will influence the way we view the world around him us ● Shortcuts in judging others (be careful) ○ Perceptual Errors ■ Selective perception ● Looking at the world based on your own interests, attitudes, you are seeing something based on your own lens. ■ Halo (Horns) Effect ● Making a judgment about someone based on 1 single characteristic ■ Contrast Effect ● Tendency to compare 2 individuals to one another.

■ Similarity effect ● Naturally predisposed to people that are similar to us. ■ Primary Effect ● AKA First Impression era, tendency to place more weight on initial information. ■ Stereotyping ● Tendency to believe all members of a particular group share similar characteristics. (Can be a good thing at times, although a lot of times based on a generalization based on inaccurate information.) ■ Projection ● Projecting your feelings onto somebody else. Placing your beliefs onto someone else. ■ Expectancy effect ● Allowing our expectations of something to influence our perception of the situation. (AKA self fulfilling prophecy) ● Attribution processes and errors ○ Only Internal and External, process of figuring out why someone behaved in a certain way. ■ Distinctiveness: How the person acts across different situations. If low on distinctiveness it's not distinct so it's going to be common, if high on distinctiveness it will be less common. ■ Consensus: How everyone else is acting in a particular context. If low on consensus, then it’s probably something about the individual. ■ Consistency: How a person acts across similar situations. Does that person act the same way across similar situations? “Was Joe late to work last week, yesterday how consistent is it.” ○

■ When making attribution/judgment about ourselves we have a natural tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence of internal factors. Known as Fundamental Attribution Error . ■ When we fail at something we tend to overestimate external factors and underestimate internal factors, although when we succeed we overestimate internal factors and underestimate external factors, this is known as Self-Serving Bias. ■ This perceptual error is simply a misperception of the commonness of one’s own beliefs? ● Projection ■ If carrie got a D on her OB, accounting, and psychology exams, most people would assume she doesn’t study very hard and/or isn’t very good at learning. Such an assumption would be influenced by what? ● Distinctiveness ● Perception Vs. Attribution ○ Perception ■ How we see the world/ Our interpretation of the world (Influenced by filters) ○ Attribution ■ What happens when a person takes the information they perceive and determines a reason why it happened. ● Decision making ○ What's the link between perceptions and decision-making ■ Why do we care? ○ Decision-making in Organizations ■ Rational decision-making ● A logical, step-by-step approach to decision making with a thorough analysis of alternative and consequences ● Steps in the rational decision-making model ○ Define the problem; identify the decision criteria; allocate weights to the criteria; develop and evaluate alternative; select the best alternative ● Assumptions ○ We can clearly identify what the problems is ○ Complete information ○ Ability to identify and evaluate all options unbiasedly. ○ Money and time are not an issue, so decision-makers select options with highest utility. ● Decision-making Continued ○ Bounded Rationality

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■ Premise - there are limits to how rational a decision maker can actually be (Which leads to the simplification of information) ■ Assumptions and key components ● Managers select the first alternative that is satisfactory (I.E., They satisfice) ■ How does bounded rationality work? ● Once a problem is identified, the search for criteria and options begins ● A limited list of the more conspicuous choices is identified ○ These are easy to find, tend to be highly visible, and represent familiar criteria and previously tried-and-true solutions ● The decision maker then reviews the list, looking for a solution that is “Good Enough” ● Sometimes a fast-and-frugal process of solving problems is the best option ■ Intuition ● Gut feeling ● Decision-making Continued ○ Influencing factors ■ Personality ■ Gender ■ Experience ■ Organizational Constraints ■ Ethical Considerations ● Degree of moral importance we place on something

○ Magnitude of consequence - Amount of harm or benefit associated with a particular decision ○ + Probability of effect - likelihood of harm or benefit that's going to happen ○ + social consensus - Public agreement that something will be good or bad ○ + Temporal Immediacy - Amount of time that will lapse between making the decision and knowing the outcome of the decision ○ + Proximity - How close you are to the person, Closeness ○ + Concentration of Effect - How many people are going to be impacted by that decision, Degree of moral compass of what we place on something. ■ Emotions - ■ Perception - The way that we view the world is going to influence the type of decisions we make Pop Quiz Review - 1. This Perceptual error simply a misperception of the commonness of one’s own beliefs? a. Projection 2. John is a fan of Justin fields. Despite having a record of 6-25, John thinks he’s awesome. Which of the following likely explains why John focuses on his blazing speed and strong arm, and not his win-loss record? a. Selective Perception 3. If Carrie got a D on her OB, accounting, and psychology exams, most people would assume she doesn’t study very hard and/or isn't very good at learning. Such an assumption would be influenced by what? a. Distinctiveness 4. If Carrie got a D on exam 1, a d on exam 2, and a d on exam 3, most people would assume she doesn’t study very hard and/or isn’t very good at learning. Such an assumption would be influenced by what? a. Consistency - Making decisions as a leader ● Leader decision-making styles - situational on which decision you should make when approaching this ○ Delegative Style - You turn it to your team for them to decide ○ Facilitative style - Coming up with the consensus on what we should do but your opinion does not outweigh the decision being made ○ Consultative style - You ask them for their thoughts/opinions but you ultimately make the decision ○ Autocratic Style - sole person to make the decision

● Which should you use? ○ How important the commitment of my employees is to the success of the decision, might want to let them have a say in the decision. ○ Your expertise of this area, looking at environment or situation factors and figuring out what the best approach is to take - Group decision making ● Advantages - ○ More knowledge and information through the pooling of group member resources ○ Increased acceptance of and commitment to the decision ○ Greater Understanding of the decision ● Disadvantages - ○ Pressure within the group to conform and fit in ○ Domination of the group by one forceful member ○ Amount of time required to make a decision/efficiency ○ Ambiguous responsibility - Common errors/biases in decision-making ● Overconfidence - People with the least expertise in an area have the most confidence ● Anchoring bias - Place too much weight on an initial position, When more information becomes available you are still fixated on it and not adjusting position ● Confirmation bias - Find info that confirms the correct decision, overlooking info that suggests you may have made a bad decision ● Availability bias - Making decisions based on information that is most easily recalled (remembered) ● Escalation of commitment - Sticking with a decision even in the face of a substantial amount of information that suggests you made a bad choice or bad decision. ● Hindsight bias - After you know the outcome of a decision thinking you could have correctly predicted it beforehand. - Ethical decision making ● Suppose an American museum is displaying a piece of artwork - Keep displaying it because more people will see this in society - utilitarian Give it back moral obligation to do the right thing - deontological - Ways to reduce bias and make better decisions ● Increase your options ● Look for information that disconfirms your beliefs ● Focus on goals (Preferably with a well-defined objective criteria) ● Don’t Try to create meaning out of random events ● Dissent and debate

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Introduction to learning ● What is learning? ○ Anything people do that is a change in their behavior ● Why do we care? ○ Explain/predict people's behaviors, understand how you and I learn, More knowledge we acquire the bigger asset we are to a company, helps with decision making, understand what motivational techniques work and what don't. ● Types of knowledge ○ Explicit vs. Implicit (tacit) ■ Explicit Knowledge ● Easily transferred through written or verbal communication ● Readily available to most ● Can be learned through books ● Always conscious and accessible information ● General Information ■ Tacit Knowledge ● Very difficult, if not impossible, to articulate to others ● Highly personal in nature ● Based on experience ● Sometimes holders don’t even recognize that they possess it ● Typically job- or situation-specific Classical conditioning ● Basic Premise: a process of learning (modifying behavior) that occurs when 2 stimuli are repeatedly paired together to elicit a desired response ( i.e., learning by association) ● 4 parts ○ Unconditioned stimulus ■ Artificial stimulus that is being introduced to a naturally occurring stimulus, gets an artificial response to something. Smelling food for example is a naturally occurring stimulus ○ Unconditioned response ■ ○ Conditioned stimulus ○ Conditioned response (relationship) - The Office skit - example of classical conditioning in class - Unconditioned stimulus - Altoid - Unconditioned response - Salivating - conditioned stimulus - Altoid - conditioned response - salivating Office2023

Operant Conditioning (reinforcement theory) ● Basic Premise - we learn there is a link between our voluntary behavior and the consequences that follow it. Operant conditioning Continued - ● Positive reinforcement ○ Goal with positive reinforcement is to increase the frequency of a desired behavior 1. Principle of contingent reinforcement a. Delivery of positive stimulus events (material goods, Verbal Praise) depend on the performance of a desired behavior. 2. Principle of immediate reinforcement a. Going to have a bigger impact on the person's behavior, lots of organizations give EOY bonuses, giving a bonus will reinforce the behavior but would have more of an impact on a behavior you wanted to keep recurring. 3. Principle of reinforcement size a. The more reinforcement you give the more impact it will have. 4. Principle of reinforcement deprivation a. The more you are deprived of something the more impact it will have when it’s administered. ● Negative reinforcement 1. Take away/remove something unpleasant following the occurrence of a desired behavior. 2. Goal is to increase the frequency of that desired behavior ● Punishment ○ Administering something unpleasant with the goal of decreasing the frequency of an undesired behavior ○ Typically punishment only suppresses bad behavior, it typically comes back and negative consequences are associated with it. ● Omission (extinction) ○ Removing all the reinforcers, typically behavior will slow down or maybe even stop. Positive Negative Present the stimulus Ch 18: Sunrise Service The ropes

1. How would you describe Ben Franklin's approach to reinforcing his employees behavior? a. Ben attempted to get them to get along, communicate, and smooth things out. He used Negative reinforcement, scheduled meetings at 6:30 A.M.. 2. Why do you think it was effective or ineffective? a. It was effective because the employees began to communicate together, and everyone showed up together including the managers. 3. Can you think of similar examples from your own experiences? Was the supervisor as clear as Ben in arranging to deflect personal criticism? Was he/she successful? CH 19: Who Could Have Known? 1. How would you describe Kerry’s approach to reinforcing his employees’ behavior? a. Ineffective because even though he used punishment to attempt to control his employees behavior he ended up still losing 15% on every job he did, he threatened them that they would be fired if they continued to have losses. 2. Why didn’t it have the intended consequences? What was his error? If he asked you for advice before this story occurred what would you have told him? a. Employees were still losing 15% and stop reporting losses 3. In terms of reinforcement, what could Kerry have done differently in order to achieve his goal more effectively? a. Attempt to Motivate his employees, offer an incentive “bonus, time-off work, early meetings” CH 8 Continued Additional motivation techniques cont. Alternative work management ● Flextime (absences, productivity, viability) ● job -sharing (flexibility, sat, motivation; comparable) ● Telecommuting (productivity, moral, sat, turn, overhead; disadv: viability, supervision, isolation, vulnerability, social loafing) Motivating through variable pay ● Merit-based pay (high performers; PA, economic activity) ● Bonuses ● Skill–based pay ● Profiit sharing (ownership, productivity; no money?) ● Gainsharing (productivity gains vs. profits) ● ESOPs Factors to consider before implementation ● Performance indicators, independence, goals, unions, culture, people

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Intrinsic rewards Performance Evaluations (not from our book) ● Common types of performance evaluation ○ Written essays (basic description of how employee performed over past 6 months or so) ○ critical incidents (focuses on specific behaviors of an employee) ○ MBO (ch 7) (management by objective) evaluating performance based on did the employee reach the goals that were setup, setting up specific targets to aim for. ○ BARS (behaviorally anchored rating scale) Evaluated on 3 or more things about performance and getting rated on them. Performance is assessed along a scale with clearly defined scale points containing examples of specific behaviors. Example: A supervisor of a nurse indicated which scale point best describes the behavior of the nurse. ○ 360 degree feedback - Most people don’t feel comfortable rating co-workers ○ forced rankings - Forcing managers to rank employees into certain categories ● Why do managers dislike evaluations/ do a poor job of evaluating employees? ○ Dislike of confrontation that comes into play, People typically don’t like to evaluate people which can lead to difficult confrontations. ○ Employees tend to get defensive rather than use this opportunity to grow their skill-set or improve. ○ Most employees tend to have an overinflated sense of their performance. 80% of employees rate their performance at Above Average ● Improving performance evaluations - question on the exam about this**** ○ If you want to improve your performance evaluation system, you should be using multiple evaluation methods , direct supervisor, plant manager, multiple eyes on person's performance ○ Need to be evaluating your employees selectively, evaluating things that you can physically see, training managers on organizational behavior subjects we talk about in class. ○ Give employees due process, make sure employees understand what they are going to be evaluated on. ● Global implications ○ Cultural differences Principles of constructive feedback ● Be specific ● Focus on the problem ● Minimize relative feedback - comparing to other employees doesn’t always work very well so try to avoid that. ● Avoid absolutes - Saying words like “your always late, or you always do this” ● Be timely ● Focus on the future ● Include information for improvement - How they can do a better job

● Coverage - Covering behavior an employee can actually do something about (within their capabilities) ● Limited - You can tell people everything about them sucks, don’t give a list of a bunch of things they need to work on, 2-4 actionable steps. Implications for managers ● Recognize individual differences ● Use goals and feedback ● Allow employees to participate in decisions that affect them ● Link rewards to performance ● Ensure reward systems is equitably based Ch 18 only thing that will be on exam is the organizational change material Get notes on learning from classmates - I missed this 1. C 2. D 3. E 4. C 5. B 6. D 7. E 8. D 9. B Practice Exam - 1. Trey was recently promoted to CEO of hidden inc., a cia funded american corp who gathers data on users’ web activity. Most employees and public assume trey is a genius with crazy programming skills, but in reality, trey is of average intelligence and has limited technology skills. Instead, he has contacts in the us state department and is willing to turn the other eye when the US government comes a calling. What explains why employees and the general public assume hes a tech genius, overlooking other aspects of his promotions? a. Stupidity b. Self-serving bias c. Fundamental attribution error d. Distinctiveness e. Primacy 2. Which of the following is an example of a primacy effect? a. Seeking out info that proves you made a wise choice b. Giving catheter a promotion because they performed better than le c. Assuming brian will struggle with his new assignment because he struggled with his last assignment d. Rejecting an applicant because they gave an odd answer to the first questions an hr manager asked

e. Believing your employees are excited about the upcoming organizational change because you are excited about it 3. If a decision is very important for the success of a company, which of the following decision-making styles would you want to avoid? a. Consultative b. Facilitative c. Normative d. Autocratic e. Delegative 4. Fernando owns a gun store in SD. Customers of all backgrounds routinely come in to buy a gun. If a routine background check finds John was previously convicted of committing a robbery, the decision to sell him a gun increases the chance the firearm might be used in a future crime. Why does this situation increase the ethical intensity of the sale? a. Proximity b. Temporal immediacy c. Probability of effect d. Concentration of effect e. Anchoring 5. Any soldier who shows up late tot roll call must perform 100 push-ups. Without knowing anything else about this situation what is the 100 push ups a. Distinction b. Punishment c. Negative reinforcement d. Extinction e. A crime against humanity 6. Before heading out for a day at the beach, you slather on sunscreen to avoid getting sunburned. Putting on sunscreen represents what in terms of operant conditioning. a. Conditioned response b. positive reinforcement c. Punishment d. negative reinforcement e. Conditioned response 7. When communicating an important message that you want to ensure is effectively received, which of the following would NOT help avoid confusion? a. Using examples or analogies to bring home the point b. Repeating the message across different channels c. Keeping the message simple d. Allowing for two-way communication e. Having a single organizational leader deliver the message 8. Which of the following would not improve motivation to the job characteristics model a. Giving employees freedom to plan, schedule, and complete their work b. Allowing employees to work on a project from beginning to end

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c. Asking employees to work on a task that requires a number of different skills and talents d. Applying rules consistently e. All of the above would improve motivation 9. Bryce is unique in that he works as both an architect and a home builder. This gives him a chance to work on building a house from idea generation to home ownership- something he absolutely loves. Which part of the JCM is responsible for Bryce’s love (i.e. motivation)? a. Instrumentality b. Task identity c. Task significance d. Autonomy e. Enactive mastery

Midterm #2 lecture notework

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