Topic 4

Topic 4: Transfer of Training Theories of transfer that inspire training design:  Theory of identical elements  Stimulus generalization approach  Self-management training  Error management training Work environment that supports transfer  Climate for transfer A model of learning and transfer of training Transfer of training - Trainees apply what they have learned in training to their jobs Near Transfer - Apply learned capabilities to a work environment that is very similar, if not identical , to the learning environment. Far Transfer - Apply learned capabilities to a work environment that is very different from the learning environment. - From a practical perspective, not all potential work-related problems and solutions can be taught during the training  far training is therefore important Theory of Identical Elements - Proposes that transfer of training will be maximized to the degree that the learning environment is identical to the work environment. (e.g. the tasks, the equipment, the emotional context) How to apply: o Identify the features in a work environment that needs to be replicated in the learning environment (Usually features of the work environment that are predictable and stable) o Replicate the identified features in the learning environment o Same procedures with same features in the work environment

Application of Theory of Identical Elements  Simulation: mimic the situations - Simulated traffic accident scene at the Accident & Emergency Training Centre, Hong Kong Hospital Authority - Simulated training for Emirates cabin crew - Simulation lab at UCLA School of Nursing Most difficult features to be replicated in a learning environment  Emotional Context How can we create proper emotional context: - Role play - Time limit - Technology , e.g. VR/AR – immersing trainees to the work environment realistically Why is identical element beneficial? - Identical elements  Help memory retrieval - Memory is better retrieved when the environmental condition of retrieval is the same as that of learning - Example: Learning and recalling words on-land and underwater o Identical elements  Better performance o Bubbles: Memory retrieval cue Failure in applying theory of identical elements: - Different cockpit configurations between the aircraft and the simulator used for training - Did not present enough information relating to the differences between aircrafts and simulators Stimulus Generalization Approach - Transfer of training will be maximized when general principles are emphasized (General principles that are applicable to many different work situations) How to apply: o Identify the general principles o Illustrate how the general principles can be applied in different context - Application of stimulus generalization approach: By emphasizing safety, teamwork, communication and standardization , organizations can reduce operating costs and improve productivity

Error management training (EMT) Trainees are: - Provided with only minimal information about the subject matter - Asked to complete a more difficult task on their own (self-exploration) - Explicitly encouraged to make errors during the self-exploration and to learn from errors Error management training is based on assumption: errors are natural by-product of active exploratory learning (Encouraged to learn from errors) - Errors  Natural - Learn from errors - More errors  more learnings 1. Only minimal information 2. Self-exploration 3. Learning from errors (positive framing of errors) Error management training vs error avoidant training Error management training produces better performance when  Post-training transfer > within training  Tasks with self-evident feedbacks, but not with unclear task-generated feedbacks  Far transfer > Near transfer o Learning and work environment  very different o more mistakes  better cope with mistakes  more experiences Why error management training (EMT) > error avoidant training (EAT)? Benefits? 1. Coping of negative emotions associated with errors o Error management training: positive feelings towards errors + not suffering + happy to learn from errors  better cope with mistakes o Error avoidant training: Negative feeling about errors (e.g. fear, anxiety)  negative performance 2. Development of metacognition (Planning and monitoring of one’s progress towards goals) o Error management training: Metacognition required in far transfer Being trained during far training  doing better in metacognition o Error avoidant training: No chance in metacognition as no need to explore subject matter

Work environment supporting transfer Climate for transfer Characteristics for positive climate for transfer:  Supportive supervisors and co-workers encouraging trainees to use skills and knowledge from training  Task cues / Job aids that remind trainees to use new knowledge and skills from training o Example: - Queen Mary Hospital providing pocket sized cue cards after CPR training - Poster showing how to wash hands Reinforcement received for using new knowledge and skills acquired in training