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1 CO-TEACHING EFFICACIES Capstone Project Madison Cavanagh Master of Education in Special Education Dr. Michael Glatfelter February, 2024

2 CO-TEACHING EFFICACIES Abstract This study investigates the efficacy of co-teaching models in elementary school classrooms, specifically examining their impact on students' reading proficiency and reading comprehension. The research aims to provide evidence regarding the effectiveness of collaborative teaching approaches in enhancing literacy skills in a diverse classroom setting. The study seeks to identify correlations between different co-teaching practices and improvements in student reading outcomes, shedding light on the potential benefits of this pedagogical strategy in fostering comprehensive literacy development. Findings from this research contribute to the ongoing discourse on inclusive education and inform educators, administrators, and policymakers about the role of co-teaching in promoting successful reading experiences for elementary school students. Keywords: Co-Teaching, Inclusive Classrooms, Team teaching, Learning Disability,

3 CO-TEACHING EFFICACIES Chapter 1 Introduction In the ever-evolving landscape of education, the concept of co-teaching has emerged as a dynamic and innovative pedagogical approach, offering a collaborative framework where two or more educators share instructional responsibilities in a shared learning environment. This thesis proposal seeks to delve into the efficacies of co-teaching, exploring its impact on student achievement, teacher professional development, and the overall learning experience. As we navigate the complexities of diverse classrooms and strive to meet the needs of all learners, understanding the potential benefits and challenges of co-teaching becomes imperative. Through a comprehensive examination of existing literature, empirical research, and practical insights, this study aims to contribute valuable insights to the ongoing discourse surrounding the effectiveness of co-teaching models in fostering inclusive and equitable educational environments. Background of the Study Co-teaching holds significant importance in TK-12 classrooms due to its potential to address the diverse and unique needs of students in an inclusive and collaborative manner. In today's educational landscape, classrooms are increasingly diverse, encompassing students with a wide range of abilities, learning styles, and cultural backgrounds. Co-teaching offers a promising solution by bringing together educators with varied expertise, allowing them to combine their strengths and adapt instructional strategies to better cater to individual student needs. “Team- taught classes have more resource and opportunities for students to engage in small group instruction, and for individual assistance,” (Pizana, 2022, p. 1823). This approach fosters a more

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4 CO-TEACHING EFFICACIES inclusive learning environment where all students, including those with disabilities or special needs, can thrive academically and socially. “Inclusive education settings where students with special needs are educated along with their non-disable peers have the highest constructive impact on their academic as well as social skills,” (Gokbulut et al., 2020). By promoting teamwork among teachers and creating a supportive atmosphere, co-teaching not only enhances the quality of education but also contributes to professional development, ultimately preparing students for success in an increasingly interconnected and diverse world. Statement of the Problem While co-teaching offers numerous benefits, it is not without its challenges, and educators may encounter several issues when implementing this collaborative approach. One significant problem is the potential for unequal participation and shared responsibilities among co-teachers. Variations in teaching styles, planning time, and decision-making can lead to imbalances, causing frustration and dissatisfaction among educators. Additionally, the lack of effective communication and coordination between co-teachers may hinder the seamless integration of instructional strategies, potentially impacting the overall learning experience for students. Furthermore, issues related to classroom space, resources, and time constraints can pose significant hurdles. Co-teachers may struggle to find time for joint planning and reflection, leading to difficulties in aligning curriculum, assessments, and instructional goals. Moreover, adapting to varying teaching philosophies and approaches may require a considerable investment of time and effort from both educators. Purpose of the Study

5 CO-TEACHING EFFICACIES The purpose of this study is to conduct research on the effectiveness of co-teaching as an intervention for increasing students’ academic success as it relates to reading for elementary age students in inclusive classrooms. Audience The intended audience for this study comprises elementary school teachers, education specialists, and administrators with an interest in or those embarking on the initial stages of their co-teaching endeavors. Significance of the Study This research is important because it contributes valuable insights into the dynamics and impact of co-teaching in educational settings as it relates to students reading and reading comprehension. By examining the efficacy of co-teaching models, the study aims to enhance our understanding of the potential benefits and challenges associated with collaborative teaching approaches. Co-teaching alone cannot increase student success rates, “to ensure that SWDs (students with disabilities) succeed in the general education setting at the secondary level, all teachers must be skilled at integrating evidence-based content-area literacy instruction that supports reading comprehension,” (Wexler, 2018). The findings of this research can inform educators, school administrators, and policymakers about effective strategies for implementing co-teaching, thereby fostering inclusive and equitable learning environments. Specifically, teachers and stakeholders alike must work together to prioritize collaboration amongst co- teachers; “co-teachers must figure out how to blend their expertise so that parity, such as equal roles and responsibilities, exists” (King-Sears et al., 2014, p. 653). Furthermore, the research addresses a critical gap in the existing literature, offering evidence-based recommendations to support the professional development of teachers engaged in co-teaching practices. Ultimately,

6 CO-TEACHING EFFICACIES the significance of this research lies in its potential to advance educational practices and contribute to the ongoing discourse surrounding inclusive and collaborative teaching methodologies. Research Question "How does the implementation of co-teaching models in inclusive 6 th grade elementary school classrooms impact students' reading scores, and what factors contribute to variations in academic outcomes within this collaborative teaching approach?" Assumptions 1. It is assumed there exists a diverse student population within inclusive classrooms, with varying abilities, learning styles, and needs. 2. It is assumed that necessary resources, such as instructional materials and classroom space, are accessible to support the implementation of co-teaching. 3. It is assumed there is an ample number of teachers, facilitating the allocation of time for two credentialed educators to collaborate within a single classroom. 4. It is assumed co-teachers are willing and prepared to engage in collaborative teaching practices. This involves a shared commitment to teamwork, effective communication, and mutual respect for each other's expertise. 5. It is assumed that co-teachers work towards aligning their instructional approaches, curriculum, and assessment methods to ensure a cohesive and integrated learning experience for students. 6. It is assumed there are professional development trainings and opportunities to support both teachers. Limitations

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7 CO-TEACHING EFFICACIES 1. The study might not account for variations in co-teachers' experience levels, potentially overlooking the impact of differing levels of expertise on the outcomes. 2. This study might not account for variations in admin support of co-teaching necessities such as protected planning time. 3. The study may not account for potential changes in teaching staff during the research period, which could impact the stability and continuity of co-teaching practices. 4. The study may not account for the full range of learning outcomes outside of the chosen metric, missing other important dimensions like social-emotional development or critical thinking skills. 5. The study may not account for variations in the fidelity of co-teaching implementation among participating classrooms could affect the consistency and validity of the study's findings. 6. The study may be specific to the context in which it was conducted, limiting the validity of results to different educational settings or grade levels. Definitions of Terms 1. Co-Teaching: "Co-teaching involves two or more educators sharing the planning, organization, delivery, and assessment of instruction, as well as the physical space of the classroom." (Friend & Cook, 2016) 2. Inclusive Classrooms: “…the practice of including students with disabilities in the regular education program full time. Students do not leave for special remedial services; all must be provided in the inclusion of the regular education program” (Mulvey et al., 2014, p. 102).

8 CO-TEACHING EFFICACIES 3. Specifically Designed Instruction (SDI): “To provide SDI, teachers adapt ‘as appropriate to the needs of an eligible child,’” this may include adjusting the content, instructional strategy, or accommodations to “to address the unique needs of the child that result from the child's disability and (ii) to ensure access of the child to the general curriculum" (Hedin et al., 2020). 4. Co-Planning: " two teachers to assist in the design, delivery, and assessment of the content. Though special educators are not expected to be content experts – no more than general educators are expected to be highly qualified in the intricacies of learning and behavioral strategies – they are asked to assist general educators in the design, delivery, and assessment of the content in the inclusive classroom. " (Rodriguez, 2021, p 930) 5. Teacher Efficacy " capability concerning instructional strategies, student engagement, and classroom management." (Pizana, 2022, p. 1814) 6. Individual Education Plan (IEP): "The term refers to both the educational program a student will follow and the legal written document describing said program…the IEP must specify the educational goals for the student and the means by which the student’s progress will be followed" (Guenot & Jaber, 2022, p. 47) Chapter 2 Review of Related Literature: The selected articles within this literature review offer an insightful exploration into the nuances of the advantages and drawbacks inherently associated with the practice of co-teaching. The following discussion provides an overview of the key findings presented in these articles. Overarchingly, the benefits of coteaching are that students have more than one trusted adult

9 CO-TEACHING EFFICACIES available, both teachers contribute equally to planning effective lessons, and students are presented two different perspectives and multiple strategies and opportunities for comprehension and access to the material. Ideally, the general education teacher acts as the content expert, and the education specialist is the access point expert. Content should be digestible and actionable to every student. However, the articles illustrate how difficult it is to implement an effective partnership. There is a considerable amount of planning time and trust both teachers must have and devote towards each other to make the partnership worthwhile. This research paper delves into studies that explore unique educational interventions, shedding light on problem-posing strategies, inclusive spaces, socioeconomic impacts on disability identification, culturally sustaining pedagogy, educational placement correlations, and cooperative teaching for reading disorders. This literature review is aimed to identify if the tradeoffs necessary to make co-teaching efficient are worth the marginal increased student success. Inclusive Classroom There is a crucial intersection between socioeconomic factors and the equitable delivery of Free and Appropriate Public Education (FAPE) for students, especially for students with disabilities (Murray et al., 2015). Murray et al.’s study aims to scrutinize the disparities in provide accommodations, modifications, and services outlined in Individualized Education Plans (IEPs) across socioeconomic lines. Students facing challenges in school are correlated to experiencing a higher economic burden than their academically successful counterparts. Murray et al.’s research unveils a correlation between students' academic success and their level of economic hardship. The study underscores the need for educators and policymakers to consider socioeconomic factors when designing inclusive educational strategies, ensuring that students

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10 CO-TEACHING EFFICACIES facing economic challenges receive tailored support to enhance their educational experiences. This aligns with the broader goal of co-teaching in creating inclusive environments that cater to the diverse needs of all students, irrespective of their socioeconomic backgrounds. Additionally, the case study, “If you want to go far,” reveals that supporting academic, cultural, and sociopolitical goals while simultaneously addressing disabilities fosters a strong bond and partnership between students and teachers (Sebastian, 2023). This case study highlights the potential synergy between co-teaching and Culturally Sustaining Pedagogy (CSP) in addressing the unique needs of multiply marginalized students (Sebastian, 2023). It emphasizes the importance of acknowledging cultural and linguistic diversity, providing insights into instructional strategies that align with both cultural responsiveness and disability considerations. Future research should incorporate student perspectives, further enriching our understanding of the impact of culturally sustaining co-teaching on academic success and the overall classroom experience (Sebastian, 2023). Co-Teaching Practices: According to a study conducted in New York in 2013, student placement plays a pivotal role in students’ academic success. The study, conducted with 559 middle and high school students, delves into the correlation between students' special education designations, intellectual abilities, and their placement within four special education settings: co-taught classrooms, resource rooms, alternate settings, or no direct support (Wilson et al., 2013). The research findings reveal a significant connection between the type of disability and the educational placement assigned to students. For instance, students with speech-language impairments (SLI) were predominantly placed in co-taught classrooms, while those with specific learning disabilities (SLD), other health

11 CO-TEACHING EFFICACIES impairments (OHI), and emotional/behavioral disorders (EBD) were more often serviced in resource rooms (Wilson et al., 2013). Furthermore, the study explores the correlation between students' IQ levels and the nature of support they receive. Notably, students with higher IQs tended to receive no direct support, while those with lower IQ levels were more commonly placed in co-taught classrooms. The article stresses the importance of analyzing and understanding the impact of different educational placements on students' academic achievement. It suggests that educators should consider students' unique learning needs and disability types when making placement decisions within inclusive settings (Wilson et al., 2013). Further research is necessary to determine if graduation rates are affected by educational placement options and to follow students post-school to assess the long-term outcomes associated with their secondary school placements. In essence, the research highlights the need for a nuanced and individualized approach to educational placement to optimize the effectiveness of co-teaching strategies within inclusive classrooms for students with diverse needs (Wilson et al., 2013). A study conducted in Iran, focused on three second-grade female participants diagnosed with reading disorders ( Ghanaat Pisheh et al., 2017). The study followed a multiple baseline single subject design, implementing a series of five intervention sessions for each participant. The findings of the study indicate that cooperative teaching interventions are an effective strategy for enhancing reading skills among students with reading disorders. The benefits of cooperative teaching are highlighted, emphasizing the potential for students with disabilities to spend more time in heterogeneous classrooms ( Ghanaat Pisheh et al., 2017). This approach aligns with the positive outcomes observed in students who spend increased time in general education settings, such as heightened self-esteem, improved social skills, and enhanced communication. The

12 CO-TEACHING EFFICACIES results, analyzed through visual analysis and effect size index calculation, demonstrate an increase in reading skills among participants ( Ghanaat Pisheh et al., 2017). While many studies highlight the positive aspects of co-teaching, it's important to acknowledge that there are also studies that have identified potential negative impacts associated with this collaborative teaching model. A notable study conducted by Michael St. John in 2015 followed students in general education without IEPs or designated learning disabilities and found that they “had almost a 2 to 1 greater chance, or a 92% increase in the probability of scoring proficient on the 2014 New York State Mathematics Assessment” if they were not placed in a co-taught, inclusive classroom (St. John et al., 2015, p. 7). This research illuminates correlated negative effects for general education students in inclusive classrooms and prompts a critical examination of the implications of co-teaching on academic outcomes. As co-teaching gains prominence in educational practices, it becomes imperative to consider potential drawbacks and inefficiencies. Weiss et al. (2022) notes “there still exists tremendous variability in implementation and effectiveness and, in these cases, an inefficient use of teacher resources” (Weiss et al., 2022, p. 243). The collective findings from these studies stress the importance of a nuanced and comprehensive approach to implementing co-teaching practices in order to maximize its benefits and mitigate potential challenges. Ghanaat Pisheh et al. (2017) illustrates the importance of two educators participating equally and sharing responsibilities, with the regular education teacher and the special education teacher taking turns leading different subjects. Further research is called for to explore and compare different cooperative teaching methods, therefore advancing our understanding of best practices in co-teaching for diverse learners ( Ghanaat Pisheh et al., 2017). Instructional Practices to support Co-Teaching

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13 CO-TEACHING EFFICACIES According to Yang and Xin's study, "Teaching Problem Posing to Students With Learning Disabilities," investigates the effectiveness of a problem posing method in mathematics instruction, particularly for students with learning disabilities (Yang & Ping, 2022). The research aims to enhance problem-solving skills, confidence, and creativity in this student population. The intervention, based on the Conceptual Model-based Problem-Solving program (COMPS), focuses on problem posing as a strategy to improve students' mathematical abilities (Yang & Ping, 2022). The research explores the impact of the COMPS model on students' problem- solving, word problem analysis, and problem posing skills. The intervention involves direct instruction using COMPS five times a week. The findings indicate promising results, showing an improvement in students' problem-solving abilities and their capacity to pose problems (Yang & Ping, 2022). While the study offers valuable insights into the benefits of problem posing for students with learning disabilities, its limitations, such as a small sample size and a single-school focus, suggest the need for further research. Future investigations could expand the study to multiple schools and grades, exploring the applicability and effectiveness of problem posing across a broader educational context. Additionally, examining the potential benefits of problem posing for younger students in grades 3-6 could provide valuable insights into its developmental impact on mathematical comprehension. A study conducted in Catalonia over two years and across seven diverse schools, dissects the transformative exploration into the dynamics of family-school relationships (Beneyto et al., 2019, p. 210). The research aimed to improve these relationships, aspiring to cultivate a truly inclusive space for all stakeholders—families, pupils, and teachers. Teachers actively engaged in the action research process, contributing to changes such as enhanced communication with

14 CO-TEACHING EFFICACIES parents, increased public events, and altered meeting formats. The study uncovered teachers' challenges in perceiving parents and families as integral members of the school community, highlighting a need for increased trust and collaboration (Beneyto et al., 2019, p. 210). The findings of this research have significant implications for instructional practices in co- teaching within inclusive classrooms. Establishing inclusive spaces requires recognizing and addressing the complexities of family-school relationships (Beneyto et al., 210). Co-teaching, a collaborative instructional approach involving two educators, can benefit from the insights gained in this study. By fostering improved communication, understanding, and trust between teachers and families, co-teaching practices can better align with the goal of inclusivity. Educators in co-taught classrooms should actively consider and implement strategies that enhance family engagement and collaboration, recognizing that families play a vital role in the success of inclusive educational environments. The research underscores the importance of integrating family perspectives into instructional practices, ultimately contributing to the creation of more inclusive and supportive learning environments (Beneyto et al., 210). Philippe Tremblay's 2013 study delves into the comparative outcomes of two instructional models for students with learning disabilities: inclusion with co-teaching and solo-taught special education (Tremblay, 2013). The study, employing an experimental research design, focuses on academic progress and achievement among students from first to second grade. In inclusive classrooms, both a special education teacher and a general education teacher collaboratively deliver instruction to a diverse group of learners. Tremblay's research seeks to empirically determine whether co-teaching or solo-taught special education leads to better academic outcomes for students with learning disabilities (Tremblay, 2013).

15 CO-TEACHING EFFICACIES Results from the study reveal a significant achievement gap in first-grade math and reading/writing between inclusive co-taught and special education classrooms. Interestingly, both groups of students with learning disabilities tested worse in first grade compared to the Wilcoxon test. However, by second grade, students in the special education classroom demonstrated slightly better test scores than their counterparts in the inclusion class (Tremblay, 2013). Tremblay's research emphasizes the need for future longitudinal studies to assess the long-term effects of co-teaching and further investigations into the diverse modalities within this instructional strategy (Tremblay, 2013). Comparative studies analyzing different co-teaching models are needed for a more comprehensive understanding of their impact on student achievement over time. Conclusions of Literature Review: The synthesis of these articles offers a multifaceted understanding of contemporary educational practices. The research spans problem-posing strategies, inclusive spaces, socioeconomic impacts on disability identification, culturally sustaining pedagogy, educational placement correlations, and cooperative teaching for reading disorders. As education continues to evolve, it is imperative to integrate these diverse approaches to meet the needs of an increasingly heterogeneous student population. Combining insights from these diverse studies provides a comprehensive view of innovative educational practices as they relate to the efficacy of coteaching. Future research should consider replicating problem-posing interventions on a larger scale, exploring long-term impacts of inclusive spaces, and delving deeper into the nuanced connections between socioeconomic factors and student disabilities. Additionally, further investigations into the dynamics of culturally sustaining pedagogy and the effectiveness of cooperative teaching across various subjects and disabilities are warranted.

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16 CO-TEACHING EFFICACIES After so much research, my understanding is that there is a profound need to approach students with as much of a tailored, personalized instructional strategy as possible. Co-teaching is a response to this deep rooted and growing need. However, the evidence is inconclusive as to whether coteaching is an effective use of two educators’ time. Students’ data in inclusive classrooms with coteaching is not radically different from students in inclusive classrooms without coteaching or from students placed in a learning lab environment. Discussion of Literature Review: The literature review provides a comprehensive overview of the current landscape of co- teaching in education, synthesizing findings from peer reviewed articles that explore various facets of educational practices. These studies encompass a range of interventions, from problem- posing methodologies and action research on inclusive spaces to socioeconomic impacts on identifying student disabilities, culturally sustaining pedagogy, educational placement correlations, and cooperative teaching for reading disorders. One key theme that emerges from the literature is the dynamic nature of co-teaching as an instructional strategy. The study by Murray et al. (2015) reveals correlations between students' academic success and their level of economic hardship; contributing significantly to the discourse on co-teaching in inclusive classrooms and emphasizing the need for educators and policymakers to consider socioeconomic factors when designing inclusive educational strategies. The prevailing emphasis in educational discourse often centers around learners requiring additional support, inadvertently leading to a neglect of the diverse needs of other students. This disproportionate focus on students with specific learning requirements can inadvertently overshadow the broader spectrum of learners, potentially overlooking opportunities to cater to the unique needs and potentials of every individual within the educational environment. As we

17 CO-TEACHING EFFICACIES navigate the landscape of inclusive education, it becomes imperative to shift our attention towards a more holistic understanding of student diversity, ensuring that the educational strategies employed are not solely designed for remediation but are also inclusive and enriching for every learner “the focus tends to be predominantly on the learners who need extra support, and the needs of other learners are inadvertently neglected,” (Marien et al., 2023, p. 8). The transformative exploration into family-school relationships in Catalonia (Beneyto et al., 2019) contributes insights into the dynamics of inclusive spaces and emphasizes the need for improved communication, understanding, and trust between teachers and families. This perspective has significant implications for co-teaching within inclusive classrooms. The case study by Sebastian (2023) introduces the dimension of Culturally Sustaining Pedagogy (CSP) within co-teaching, highlighting the potential synergy between addressing academic, cultural, and sociopolitical goals while simultaneously addressing disabilities. The study emphasizes the importance of acknowledging cultural and linguistic diversity, providing valuable insights into instructional strategies that align with both cultural responsiveness and disability considerations that may help align teachers and families. The literature explores the correlation between students' special education designations, intellectual abilities, and their placement within different special education settings. The study by Wilson et al. (2013) reveals a significant connection between the type of disability and the educational placement assigned to students, stressing the importance of a nuanced and individualized approach to educational placement within inclusive settings. Pisheh et al.’s 2017 study highlights cooperative teaching interventions for students with reading disorders and demonstrates their effectiveness in enhancing reading skills.

18 CO-TEACHING EFFICACIES The literature review also explores the different instructional practices available with co- teaching. Philippe Tremblay's 2013 study on the comparative outcomes of instructional models for students with learning disabilities in the general education classroom versus within a separate special education learning center raises questions about the long-term effects of co-teaching. Kurz et al. (2010) emphasizes the significant impact and importance of content alignment in standards-based education for all students, “correlations between alignment and achievement are consistent with prior research and highlight the value of content alignment in standards-based education for all students (p. 143).” This consistency across studies underscores the notion that a well-aligned curriculum, instruction, and assessment contribute positively to academic achievement outcomes. The findings suggest that when educational components are thoughtfully aligned, students are better positioned for success, reinforcing the notion that content alignment is a valuable and influential factor in promoting positive learning outcomes across diverse student populations. This reaffirms the relevance of prioritizing alignment within educational frameworks. Additional longitudinal studies and exploration of diverse modalities within co- teaching are necessary to dissect the significant achievement gap identified in first-grade math and reading/writing between inclusive co-taught and special education classrooms. In conclusion, the synthesis of these articles contributes to a multifaceted understanding of contemporary co-teaching strategies. The literature review highlights the ongoing evolution of education and the need to integrate diverse instructional approaches to meet the needs of an increasingly heterogeneous student population. While co-teaching is positioned as a response to the growing need for tailored, personalized instructional strategies, the evidence presented in the literature review suggests that its impact on student outcomes is inconclusive. This inconclusiveness prompts a call for future research to delve deeper into the effectiveness of

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19 CO-TEACHING EFFICACIES different co-teaching strategies across various subjects and student populations to explore potential long-term co-teaching efficacies. Chapter 3 Methods Capstone Research Hypothesis If the implementation of co-teaching strategies in an elementary school 6 th grade classroom is increased during English Language Arts, then students' reading comprehension will improve because collaborative instructional practices provide diverse perspectives, individualized support and scaffolding, and enhanced feedback, leading to greater student engagement and proficiency in reading comprehension. Participants There are two whole class groups. Students are in the 6 th grade and between the ages 11 and 12 years old. Classes are divided 54:46 ratio girl to boy. Students have a range of ability, some test in the 8 th grade reading comprehension level on district wide i-Ready assessments, some students test at the 3 rd grade reading level on the same district wide i-Ready assessment. Four students in the co-taught class have an Individual Education Plan with reading goals; two students have 504s for academic support. In the control group, two students have Individual Education Plans and three students have 504s for academic support and one student is currently being evaluated for special education services. In the experimental group, no students are on medication or require technology support to access their education. In the control group, one student is on 10 mg of Vyvanse each day; no students require technology to access their education. Criteria for Including and Excluding Participants from the Study

20 CO-TEACHING EFFICACIES Students in this study must be in 6 th grade at an elementary school on the west coast that has inclusive classrooms. Inclusive classrooms will include students with a diagnosed learning disability and students who do not. Classrooms will include students from a variety of home life experiences and learning abilities. Students were excluded from participating in this study if they are not in the 6 th grade and who are not enrolled in an inclusive learning environment. Before engaging in the reading comprehension intervention, participants are expected to possess certain prerequisite skills to facilitate their learning and success in the program. These prerequisite skills include basic reading skills, comprehension strategies, and critical thinking skills. Participants should have foundational skills in decoding, fluency, and vocabulary to effectively engage with and comprehend written texts. Students should possess a basic knowledge of comprehension strategies such as predicting, visualizing, questioning, and summarizing to enhance their understanding of texts. To screen for these specific skills, students will be observed and informally assessed at the beginning of the year, prior to intervention. Students will be assessed with short reading passages followed by comprehension questions or tasks. Teachers will observe their ability to apply comprehension strategies such as predicting, visualizing, questioning, and summarizing to effectively comprehend the text. Participants will be given tasks or scenarios that require critical thinking skills, such as analyzing information, making inferences, and drawing conclusions to assess their ability to think critically and apply reasoning skills to solve problems. Educators need to have the ability to teach, manage behavior and collaborate with team teachers to effectively co-teach together. Teachers will be interviewed and informally assessed prior to being assigned to a co-teaching position that would impact this study. Teachers should express positive attitudes toward co-teaching and collaboration. They should express an

21 CO-TEACHING EFFICACIES openness to sharing space and a commitment to the planning portion. They will then attend a training to acquire basic skills necessary for class management and implementation of co- teaching strategies. Screening to Pinpoint Target Behavior In 6th grade, reading comprehension is a critical skill necessary for academic success and lifelong learning. The target behavior of reading comprehension involves the ability to accurately understand, interpret, and analyze written texts, both literature and informational. This skill is multifaceted and encompasses various sub-skills, including identifying main ideas, making inferences, summarizing information, and drawing conclusions. To pinpoint the target behavior, a detailed task analysis will be conducted, outlining specific steps involved in proficient reading comprehension. These steps include silently reading the passage, identifying main ideas, highlighting supporting details, and summarizing the main idea in one's own words. Students may be assessed verbally or through written work. The need to teach reading comprehension was identified through a comprehensive screening procedure, which involved standardized reading assessments, classroom observations, and teacher reports. A baseline will be established for the control and experimental group. The decision to teach this behavior was based on the importance of reading comprehension in students’ academic careers. Stimuli, such as reading passages of varying lengths and complexities, were assigned to participants based on their individual reading levels and instructional needs, with each set designed to scaffold understanding and progressively increase in difficulty. Visual aids, such as graphic organizers and highlighters, were provided to support participants' comprehension and organization of information. Overall, the target behavior of reading comprehension is essential for 6th-grade students to effectively engage with and comprehend a wide range of texts across

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22 CO-TEACHING EFFICACIES subject areas, laying the foundation for academic achievement and critical thinking skills development. The success of co-teaching strategies will be determined based on the compared cumulative growth of both classes. Response Definitions and Data Recording Procedures In the intervention aimed at enhancing reading comprehension skills among 6th-grade students, an attentional cue will be employed to initiate reading activities and prompt students' engagement, ensuring a structured approach to skill development and facilitating accurate data recording to monitor progress. Teachers will wait for the classroom to be quiet, potentially using class cues such as flipping the lights on and off, ringing a bell or clapping hands. Then, they will use an attentional cue, such as "Let's begin!" or "Are you ready?", prompting students to respond affirmatively, such as saying "Yes, I'm ready!" or nodding their head. The target behavior of reading comprehension is defined as the ability to accurately understand, interpret, and analyze written texts, including identifying main ideas, summarizing information, and making inferences with 80% accuracy over a two week period of time. Correct responses entail accurately identifying main ideas. Students should cite at least two supporting details and/or evidence from the text. Incorrect responses include inaccurately summarizing the text, misidentifying the main idea or being unable to allude to text evidence. To track progress in developing reading comprehension skills, teachers will utilize a combination of qualitative and quantitative measures aligned with the defined target behavior. Firstly, assessments focused on identifying main ideas, summarizing information, and utilizing text evidence will be conducted. These assessments may include reading comprehension quizzes, written summaries of texts, and analysis of text-based questions. Secondly, ongoing observations during reading activities will monitor students' engagement, comprehension strategies, and

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23 CO-TEACHING EFFICACIES application of learned skills. Additionally, detailed records of individual student performance will be maintained, noting improvements and areas requiring further support. By consistently collecting and analyzing data over time, teachers ensure that students achieve the target behavior with 80% accuracy, allowing for meaningful progress monitoring and instructional adjustments as needed. An example of the data collection sheet is provided in Appendix A for reference. Steps Correct Response Incorrect Response Read the passage silently Accurately reads the passage Does not read or misreads Identify main ideas Accurately identifies main ideas Misidentifies main ideas Summarize the main idea in own words Accurately summarizes main idea in students’ own words Inaccurately summarizes or omits main idea Reference Specific Text Evidence Accurately names text evidence that correlates to the main idea States text evidence that is irrelevant to main idea, unable to retell events Research Method and Experimental Design: The research method for this study is an Action Research Method, in this case, the scholarly practitioner is using and adaptation of quasi-experimental design with a pre-test/post- test control group. This research method is an adaptation of a quasi-experimental design designed to conform to the conditions of two pre-existing classrooms and is meant to transform the teaching strategy used. The study will compare the effects of targeted co-teaching strategies on the reading comprehension scores of 42 6th-grade students in two classes of 21 students on the west coast. The control group will be an inclusive general education class, including students with individual education plans (IEPs). Students with IEPs will be pulled out of class for services and specialized academic instruction. In the general education setting, students will receive standard instruction from a general education teacher and may have times when an aid is delivering push in services. The experimental group will be composed of an inclusive classroom,

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24 CO-TEACHING EFFICACIES where students with IEPs primarily receive services through a co-teaching model. All students will receive instruction by a qualified education specialist and a general education teacher, incorporating increased teacher collaboration and differentiated instructional strategies. Intervention General Procedures: The intervention will involve implementing targeted co-teaching strategies in the experimental group classroom. Co-teaching as an instructional method will be delivered in the general education classroom four days of the week for one hour during their English Language Arts period. The entire class will be present for the targeted intervention. This will include providing weekly, protected collaborative planning time for co-teachers. During this collaborative time, the education specialist and general education teacher will design differentiated lesson plans and make a plan for delivery. Instruction will be based on students’ learning profiles with instructional scaffolding techniques embedded within the lesson. The intervention will be executed over the course of a year, with regular monitoring and adjustments based on formative assessment data and administrator observation. There will be three days designated to the professional development of the co-teaching team to respond to assessment data and administrator feedback. Overview Description of Conditions: The study will have two conditions: a control group and an experimental group. The control group will consist of 21 6th-grade students who will receive standard instruction from a general education teacher without additional co-teaching interventions. The experimental group will consist of 21 6th-grade students who will receive instruction from an education specialist and a general education teacher. Both teachers will utilize differentiated instruction, team

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25 CO-TEACHING EFFICACIES teaching strategies, and increased instructional scaffolding based on the collaborative planning sessions and the students’ learning profiles. Classrooms will have the same general layout and include students with similar learning profiles. Classrooms will have the same curriculum, available materials, and technology. All students have access to a Chromebook and google classroom. All students have access to writing instruments, paper and their own learning materials ie: text books, novels, notepads, response booklets. Intervention (Instructional) Procedures: In the experimental group, co-teachers will collaborate to plan and deliver instruction that meets the diverse needs of students. These procedures will be implemented systematically throughout the entire intervention period of one academic year to maximize the effectiveness of co-teaching practices on students’ reading comprehension skills. Intervention procedures will include collaborative planning, differentiated instruction, scaffolding, formative assessments, professional development and administrator feedback, and reading comprehension routines. Co- teachers will meet weekly for 45 minutes to plan lessons with embedded scaffolding, set instructional goals, and develop implementation strategies to differentiate instruction based on students' individual needs, IEP goals, and learning styles. Instruction will be tailored to meet the diverse needs of students, with varied instructional strategies, mediums, materials, and assessments used to accommodate different learning profiles. Co-teachers will provide instructional scaffolding, support and guidance to students as they engage with challenging tasks, gradually fading support as students demonstrate proficiency. Regular formative assessments will be used to monitor student progress, identify areas of need, and provide timely feedback to guide instruction. Co-teachers will attend three professional development days throughout the academic year devoted to developing greater skill

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26 CO-TEACHING EFFICACIES for co-teaching and administrators will observe the co-teachers once each trimester to provide constructive feedback and instruction. A variety of co-teaching instructional strategies will be used, including team teaching, parallel teaching, station teaching, alternative teaching and supportive teaching. Teachers will engage in a variety of reading comprehension lessons. Reading Comprehension Strategies: Reciprocal Teaching, Thinking Routines, Literature Circles, Graphic Organizers, Shared Reading a. Reciprocal Teaching: Reciprocal teaching is a structured method where teachers and students take turns leading the discussion about a text. Teachers model comprehension strategies such as predicting, clarifying, questioning, and summarizing, and then gradually release responsibility to students. This method fosters active engagement and metacognitive awareness, leading to deeper understanding of the text. b. Think-Aloud: Co-teachers can use a think-aloud routine to model their thinking processes as they read a text, demonstrating how skilled readers make predictions, infer meanings, visualize scenes, and monitor comprehension. By explicitly verbalizing their cognitive processes, teachers provide students with insights into effective reading strategies and help them develop their own metacognitive skills. c. Literature Circles: Literature circles involve small groups of students reading and discussing a common text independently. Co-teachers can facilitate literature circles by providing guidance on selecting appropriate texts, assigning roles within the group (such as discussion leader, summarizer, vocabulary enricher), and guiding discussions to promote critical thinking and deeper comprehension.

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27 CO-TEACHING EFFICACIES d. Graphic Organizers: Using graphic organizers, such as story maps, Venn diagrams, or concept webs, can help students visually organize and synthesize information from a text. Co-teachers can use graphic organizers collaboratively to scaffold students' comprehension, guiding them in identifying main ideas, supporting details, cause-and-effect relationships, and other key elements of the text. e. Shared Reading: In shared reading, both teachers and students read aloud together, with teachers modeling fluent reading and engaging students in discussions about the text. This method promotes comprehension by providing opportunities for students to hear and see fluent reading, ask questions, make predictions, and discuss the text's meaning collaboratively. Reliability Assessment data will be collected weekly to track student progress and growth. Co- teachers will be observed monthly to ensure proper implementation of co-teaching strategies and interventions. Both classes will be given the same pre-test, curriculum and post-test. All teachers will use the same materials, general lesson plans, instructional goals, tests, and rubrics to maintain consistency across control and experimental groups. Teachers will collect assessment data from students. Administrators and teachers will collect observation data regarding the implementation of co-teaching strategies. Data will be collected in the classroom during the English Language Arts portion of the day. Administrators will use the same data sheet on every observation to maintain uniformity in data collection procedures. Teachers will use a weekly data sheet to self-reflect and self-rank the implementation of differentiated strategies. Please find data sheet for teachers to utilize in Appendix B, find administrator data collection sheet in Appendix C. Google drive will be used to record, store, and track data to streamline the data collection

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28 CO-TEACHING EFFICACIES process and minimize errors associated with manual recording. The administrators, two teachers and education specialist simultaneously collecting data allows for cross-validation of observations and helps identify and address any discrepancies or biases in data collection. Video and audio will not be used to document student progress.

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29 CO-TEACHING EFFICACIES References Beneyto, M., Castillo, J., Collet-Sabé, J., & Tort, A. (2019). Can schools become an inclusive space shared by all families? Learnings and debates from an action research project in Catalonia. Educational Action Research , 27 (2), 210–226. https://doi.org/10.1080/09650792.2018.1480401 Friend, M., & Cook, L. (2016). Interactions: Collaboration skills for school professionals (8th ed.). NY: Pearson. Gokbulut, O. D., Akcamete, G., & Güneyli, A. (2020). Impact of Co-Teaching Approach in Inclusive Education Settings on the Development of Reading Skills. International Journal of Education and Practice, 8(1), 1-17. Guenot, B., & Jaber, L. S. (2022). The Rise in Demand for Special Education in Ontario, Canada: A Focus on French-Language Schools. Journal of Teaching and Learning, 16(1), 44-63. Hedin, L. R., Conderman, G., Gerzel-Short, L., & Liberty, L. (2020). Specially Designed Instruction in Middle and High School Co-taught Classrooms. Clearing House, 93(6), 298–305. https://doi.org/10.1080/00098655.2020.1812492 King-Sears, M. E., Brawand, A. E., Jenkins, M. C., & Preston-Smith, S. (2014). Co-teaching Perspectives from Secondary Science Co-teachers and Their Students with Disabilities.

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30 CO-TEACHING EFFICACIES Journal of Science Teacher Education, 25(5), 651–680. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10972- 014-9391-2 Kurz, A., Elliott, S. N., Wehby, J. H., & Smithson, J. L. (2010). Alignment of the Intended, Planned, and Enacted Curriculum in General and Special Education and Its Relation to Student Achievement. The Journal of Special Education, 44(3), 131-145. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022466909341196 Mariën, D., Vanderlinde, R., & Struyf, E. (2023). Teaching in a Shared Classroom: Unveiling the Effective Teaching Behavior of Beginning Team Teaching Teams Using a Qualitative Approach. Education Sciences, 13(11), 1075. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci13111075 Mulvey, J., Cooper, B. S., Accurso, K., & Gagliardi, K. (2014). Education is special for everyone : How schools can best serve all students. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Incorporated. Murray, C., Doren, B., J.M., Zvoch, K., & Seeley, J.R. (2015). Constructing and validating a multiple-indicator construct of economic hardship in a national sample of adolescents with disabilities. Exceptional Children, 505-522. Ghanaat Pisheh, E.A., Sadeghpour, N., Nejatyjahromy, Y. and Mir Nasab, M.M. (2017), The Effect of Cooperative Teaching on the Development of Reading Skills among Students with Reading Disorders. Support for Learning, 32: 245-266. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9604.12168 Pizana, R. F. (2022). Collective Efficacy and Co-Teaching Relationships in Inclusive Classrooms. International Journal of Multidisciplinary: Applied Business & Education Research, 3(9), 1812-1825.

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31 CO-TEACHING EFFICACIES Rodriguez, J. (2021). Perceptions and practices of U.S. pre-service special education teachers on teaching social studies instruction in inclusive classrooms. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 25(8), 928–943. Sebastian, R. “If you want to go far:” A case study of culturally sustaining co-teaching. Urban Rev 55, 27–49 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11256-022-00639-0 Sharma, U., & Salend, S. J. (2016). Teaching Assistants in Inclusive Classrooms: A Systematic Analysis of the International Research. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 41(8). https://doi.org/10.14221/ ajte.2016v41n8.7 St. John, M. M., & Babo, G. (2015). The Probability of a General Education Student Placed in a Co-Taught Inclusive Classroom of Passing the 2014 New York State ELA and Mathematics Assessment in Grades 6-8. National Council of Professors of Educational Administration , 2 , 77–87. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1105715.pdf Weiss, M. P., Glaser, H., & Lloyd, J. W. (2022). An Exploratory Study of an Instructional Model for Co-Teaching. Exceptionality, 30(4), 232–245. https://doi.org/10.1080/09362835.2020.1727338 Wexler, J., Kearns, D. M., Lemons, C. J., Mitchell, M., Clancy, E., Davidson, K. A., Sinclair, A. C., & Wei, Y. (2018). Reading Comprehension and Co-Teaching Practices in Middle School English Language Arts Classrooms. Council for Exceptional Children , 84 (4), 384–402. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/0014402918771543 Wilson, G. L., Kim, S. A., & Michaels, C. A. (2013). Factors associated with where secondary students with disabilities are educated and how they are doing. The Journal of Special Education , 47(3), 148-161. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022466911411575

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32 CO-TEACHING EFFICACIES Yang, X., & Xin, Y. (2022). Teaching problem posing to students with learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Quarterly , 280-293. Appendix A Date: Summarizes Plot Identifies Main Idea Cites text evidence Cites 1 Text Evidence Comments:

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33 CO-TEACHING EFFICACIES Appendix B Co-Teaching Weekly Self Reflection Date: + indicates event happened, - indicates event did not occur Teachers attended collaboration time? Planned instruction? Differentiated/Scaffolded? Planned Co-Teaching Strategy? Decided on roles each teacher would play? Co-Teaching Strategy Used? If yes, please add in the notes which one. Effective Partnership? Notes:

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34 CO-TEACHING EFFICACIES Appendix C Administration Trimester Review Date: + indicates event happened, - indicates event did not occur Collaboration Time Available to Teachers? Teachers attended collaboration time? Instruction appeared planned ahead? Embedded Differentiation/Scaffolding? Known Co-Teaching Strategy Used? If yes, please add in the notes which one. Effective Partnership? Notes:

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Madison Cavanagh Chapter 1 and 2 and 3

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