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EXAM 1 Sarah Wilson Exam 1 Northampton Community College Professor J. Speicher September 28, 2023 1

EXAM 1 Abstract In this essay, we'll be tackling some key questions about connective tissue blood, the human heart, and blood pressure. To kick things off, let's dive into an exploration of the components that make up blood, get to know the plasma proteins and what roles they play, look at how formed elements are produced, and compare the structure and functions of five different types of white blood cells. Next, I'll dive into the topic of cardiac circulation and its significance. We'll identify the key arteries and veins responsible for nourishing the heart muscle, explore the process through which blood enters this circulation, follow the path of blood flow, and understand how it returns to the heart. I will also discuss the waves and intervals of an electrocardiogram. Finally, we'll look at the distinctions between pulmonary and systemic blood vessels. I'll break down the impact of vessel diameter and vascular flexibility on blood pressure, elaborate on three factors that can alter blood volume, and pinpoint any hormonal regulations that have an impact on blood pressure and the flow of blood through our arteries and veins. 2

EXAM 1 Blood According to Seeley's Anatomy and Physiology 12th Edition Blood is made up of four components, which include plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Plasma is the liquid part of blood, which makes up about 55% of the total blood volume. Plasma is primarily composed of water, but it also contains various proteins, ions, nutrients, and waste products. Red blood cells, also known as erythrocytes, are responsible for carrying oxygen from the lungs to the body’s tissues and removing CO2. They make up about 45% of the blood volume. White blood cells are part of the immune system and play a crucial role in defending the body against infection and diseases (VanPutte et al., Seeley's Anatomy & Physiology 2019). White blood cells account for a small percentage of the total blood volume. Platelets are small cell fragments that help in blood clotting. When a blood vessel is damaged, platelets gather at the site to form a clot and prevent excessive bleeding. It is apparent that each component of blood has its own unique functions, contributing to the overall health and well-being of the human body (1MedicalNewsToday.com Medically reviewed by Meredith Goodwin). According to Seeley's Anatomy and Physiology 12th Edition the proteins present in human blood plasma are a mixture of simple proteins, glycoproteins, lipoproteins, and other conjugated proteins called Plasma Proteins (VanPutte et al., Seeley's Anatomy & Physiology 2019). The three significant plasma protein fractions are albumin, globulin, and fibrinogen. Albumin, accounting for 58% of plasma proteins, plays a crucial role in controlling the exchange of water between our tissues and the bloodstream. It also plays a significant role in determining blood thickness and osmotic pressure, serves as a buffer, and has the important job of transporting substances like fatty acids, free bilirubin, and thyroid hormones. 3

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EXAM 1 Globulins make up 38% of the plasma proteins and are further categorized into three distinct types. 1. α (alpha1 antitrypsin) This type protects tissues from damage by inflammation, they transport thyroid hormones, cortisol, testosterone, and estrogen. This type also transports lipids, converts ferrous iron into ferric iron (promoting iron transport), and transports hemoglobin released from damaged red blood cells. 2. β is a transporter of irons, lipids and coagulation proteins. 3. γ This type of Globulin is involved in immunity and are also called Immunoglobulins. Fibrinogen is the third type of plasma protein and is a fibrous protein that aids in blood clotting. Plasma proteins are a crucial component of blood that perform many functions in the human body. They are produced in the liver and circulate in the blood, which is vital in maintaining our health. The components of blood known as formed elements comprise both cells and cell fragments. Amongst these, we have red blood cells (erythrocytes), white blood cells, and platelets. Erythrocytes, which are red blood cells, take the lead as the most plentiful among the formed elements, making up a vast 95% of the total formed element volume. All the formed elements in the blood originate from a singular group of stem cells known as hemocytoblasts, primarily located in the red bone marrow. These hemocytoblasts undergo division, giving rise to two distinct daughter cells: one known as the Myeloid Stem Cell and the other as the Lymphoid Stem Cell. The Lymphoid Stem Cells turn into Lymphoblasts, which end up turning into lymphocytes. The Myeloid Stem Cells are what make up red blood cells, platelets and most white blood cells. Myeloid Stem cells divides into four different types of cells: 1. Proerythroblast: turns into early, middle and late erythroblasts, reticulocytes and eventually into 4

EXAM 1 a red blood cell. 2. Megakaryoblast turns into a Megakaryocyte and a Megakaryocyte Breakup, which eventually turns into Platelets. 3. Myeloblasts are diverse cells that can turn into three different types of granulocytes. From the Progranulocyte come three different types of cells: Basophilic Myelocyte, (turns into a Basophilic Band Cell to a Basophil), Eosinophilic Myelocyte (turns into an Eosinophilic Band Cell to an Eosinophil), and Neutrophilic Myelocyte (turns into a Neutrophilic Band Cell to a Neutrophil). The last cell that the Myeloid Stem Cell can produce is called the Monocyte. The Myeloid Stem Cell becomes a Monoblast, which then becomes a Monocyte. White blood cells are fascinating and even though there aren’t many of them, compared to Red Blood Cells, their functions are equally important. There are two distinct categories of white blood cells. Granulocytes (white blood cells that have granules) and Agranulocytes (white blood cells without granules). Of the Granulocytes, there are Neutrophils, Basophils, and Eosinophils. Neutrophils comprise 55-70% of white blood cells and are the first of the white blood cells to respond to infections. Neutrophils have little granules inside their cytoplasm and have many lobes. Neutrophils “eat” (phagocytize) bacteria and can also release lysosomes that destroy certain types of bacteria. Basophils have little granules as well, but they have so many that you are unable to see the cell inside the cytoplasm due to the number of granules. Basophils comprise .5-1% of white blood cells and release histamines (in the case of allergic reactions) and heparin (blood thinner). Eosinophils comprise 1-4% of white blood cells and have two lobes with granules inside cytoplasm. Eosinophils kill parasitic worms. The last two types of white blood cells are agranulocytes because they do not have granules inside their cytoplasm. The first one is a Monocyte. Monocytes comprise 2-8% of white blood cells and are the largest of all white blood cells. They phagocytize bacteria, dead cells, cell fragments and other debris. The 5

EXAM 1 last white blood cell agranulocyte is a Lymphocyte. Lymphocytes comprise 20-40% of white blood cells and they are the smallest of the white blood cells. Lymphocytes play a huge role in our immunity. 6

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EXAM 1 Heart -Circulation Cardiac Circulation is the heart's way of ensuring that your body receives the vital nutrients and oxygen it needs while simultaneously removing carbon dioxide and other waste products. It accomplishes this through two main pathways: the systemic circuit, where oxygen- rich blood is pumped throughout the body, and the pulmonary circuit, where oxygen-depleted blood is sent to the lungs for replenishment. The importance of cardiac circulation cannot be overstated. First, it's a matter of life and death because without oxygen reaching your organs and tissues, your survival would be impossible. Second, it's responsible for regulating the precise amount of blood flow throughout your body, ensuring that blood travels in a one-way direction. Lastly, this system creates and maintains blood pressure, which is essential for the rapid delivery of nutrient-rich, oxygenated blood to all your organs, and the efficient removal of waste products. The heart itself needs to be fed and taken care of as well, so it can continue to pump (non- stop). The way your body takes care of your heart is through the Coronary Circulation. Coronary Circulation consists of blood vessels that carry blood to and from the tissues of the heart wall. The arteries that feed oxygen-rich and nutrient-rich blood to the heart are coronary arteries. There is a left and right coronary artery. The coronary arteries are located at the ascending aorta and are the first arteries to which O2-rich blood is delivered. There are also branches that come off the coronary arteries that travel around the heart delivering blood. The blood vessels that bring the O2-deprived blood back to the right atrium of the heart for the pulmonary circuit are called the Great Cardiac Vein, and the Small Cardiac Vein. These two major veins carry O2-depleted blood and connect in the posterior of the heart at the Coronary 7

EXAM 1 Sinus and the Coronary Sinus will then deliver the O2-depleted blood back into the right atrium to start the pulmonary circuit again. According to the National Library of Medicine coronary circulation’s blood flow happens during diastole (when the heart muscles are relaxed). The heart muscles relax and thus, the heart’s blood can flow freely during that time ((Physiology, coronary circulation - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf)). Blood is delivered to the body through arteries and returned to the heart via veins. Blood enters the circulatory system at the right atrium. It is O2-depleted and is pumped to the right ventricle. From the right ventricle, the pulmonary circuit starts as the blood is pumped into the pulmonary trunk, through the pulmonary arteries, and into the lungs where gases and wastes are exchanged. O2-rich blood comes back into the heart through the pulmonary arteries. When the O2-rich blood is pumped from the pulmonary arteries into the left atrium, the blood is now on the system circuit of the circulatory system. The blood is pumped into the left ventricle and then into the aorta, where right at the beginning of the aorta the blood is delivered back to the heart through the coronary arteries. The rest of the blood is delivered throughout the body through three arteries located on the arch of the aorta (brachiocephalic, left common carotid artery, and the left subclavian artery). Blood is then returned to the heart through blood vessels (veins) and entered back into the heart at the superior and inferior vena cava, where it will be pumped back into the right atrium and start the process all over again. Ensuring your heart is healthy is essential for a long and healthy life. One way to do this is by having an ECG (electrocardiogram). ECGs are a simple test that can measure electrical activity and rhythm in the heart. A normal ECG has a P-wave, a QRS-complex, and a T-wave. According to Seeley's Anatomy and Physiology 12th Edition the P-Wave happens when the 8

EXAM 1 valves between the atria and ventricles open and is atrial depolarization, which is followed by a contraction and increased pressure in the atria (also called atrial systole). The QRS-Complex refers to the combination of the Q, R, and S-Waves and is the main spike seen in an ECG. The QRS-Complex represents the depolarization of the ventricles, and the time it took to stimulate the ventricles and signals the onset of a contraction. The T-Wave represents the repolarization of the ventricles and is where ventricle relaxation occurs (VanPutte et al., Seeley's Anatomy & Physiology 2019). 9

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EXAM 1 Blood Pressure We discussed pulmonary versus systemic circuits in the previous essay. Now, let's talk about the difference between the pulmonary and systemic blood vessels. The pulmonary circuit has a lot fewer vessels than the systemic circuit because the pulmonary circuit doesn’t have far to go. The pulmonary circuit consists of pulmonary arteries and veins. The systemic circuit has many blood vessels of many different sizes. The largest of the systemic blood vessels is the aorta. The aorta is the size of a garden hose. It is large because it pumps freshly oxygenated blood to the body. Pulmonary blood vessels facilitate the exchange of gases in the lungs, while systemic blood vessels ensure that oxygenated blood reaches all parts of the body and deoxygenated blood is returned to the heart. Blood pressure is a measurement of the force that blood exerts against blood vessel walls. Blood pressure is determined by two things. The amount of blood flowing through the blood vessels and the diameter (width) of the blood vessels. A small change in the diameter of a blood vessel will dramatically change the flow of blood. If the diameter is constricted, less blood will flow through, and your blood pressure will lower and when the diameter is dilated, more blood will flow through and your blood pressure will increase. Vascular Compliance basically means that blood vessel volume increases as blood pressure increases. The more elastic the vessel is the greater its compliance is and the greater the blood pressure is and vice versa for less elastic blood vessels. There are many different factors that affect blood volume. Three of these factors include a decrease in functional kidney mass, excess aldosterone production, and increased resistance to blood flow in the renal arteries. All these lead to an increase in blood volume. 10

EXAM 1 There are several hormone controls that influence blood pressure and blood flow. One of these hormones is called antidiuretic or water conservation hormone (ADH) and is produced in your posterior pituitary. The thyroid has two hormones that can affect blood pressure and flow when there is not enough of it (hyposecretion) and when there is too much (hypersecretion); one called triiodothyronine (commonly called T3) and thyroxine (commonly called T4). There are also hormones produced in the Adrenal Cortex that influence blood pressure and flow. Mineralocorticoids balance blood by creating and releasing the hormone Aldosterone. 11

EXAM 1 References Biga, L. M., Bronson, S., Dawson, S., Harwell, A., Hopkins, R., Kaufmann, J., LeMaster, M., Matern, P., Morrison-Graham, K., Oja, K., Quick, D., Runyeon, J., Oeru, O., & OpenStax. (2019, September 26). Anatomy & Physiology . Anatomy Physiology. https://open.oregonstate.education/aandp/ by Meredith Goodwin, MD, FAAFP . (n.d.). Medical and health information . Medical News Today. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/ How does the Blood Circulatory System Work? - informedhealth.org - NCBI ... (n.d.-a). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279250/ National Library of Medicine. (n.d.-b). Physiology, coronary circulation - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482413/ Plasma proteins: Types and functions (basic notes) . Biochemistry Den. (2023, February 20). https://biochemden.com/plasma-proteins/ VanPutte, C. L., Regan, J. L., Russo, A. F., Seeley, R. R., Stephens, T. D., & Tate, P. (2019). Ch 18 Endocrine System Ch 19 Cardiovascular System Blood, Ch 20 Cardiovascular System Heart. In Seeley’s Anatomy & Physiology (pp. 188–228). essay, McGraw Hill Education. 12

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