Exam 2 Review: Key Concepts in Fire Ecology to Ace Your Test

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Dadadadada .... It’s the mothafucking S-N-Double-0-P D-0-Double-G!!!! Who’s coming to this exam high on confidence bitch!!!? EXAM 2 REVIEW Student-Provided Questions. Study questions submitted on Canvas as extra credit. Some of the guestions will appear on the exam (possibly with a little modification). Compare & Contrast A. Define the following terms, B. Indicate how they are similar and how they are different, and C. Give an example of each. 1. First order fire effects vs. second order fire effects First Order Fire Effects- Occur during or immediately after a fire and are localized to the burn area. Ex. burned foliage. consumed litter, smoke effects on air, release of carbon. Second Order Fire Effects- Effects that occur after the fire is completed. Ex. Erosion, altered competition, increased tree growth, gap creation. Comparison- First order fire effects occur while the fire is active and are often a direct result of contact with fire. Second order fire effects come later and can be additional effects caused by the first order effects.

2. Mastication/mulching vs. prescribed fire (Part C not applicable) Mastication/Mulching- reduces small trees and shrubs, reduces fire intensity, ROS, and flame height. Increases severity by placing more heat on the ground possibly damaging roots. Prescribed Fire- management tool used to decrease competition, allocate nutrients to targeted species, and promote regeneration of fire adapted species. (Ex. backing, head, strip, flank, etc.) Comparison- Prescribed fire consumes fuels while mastication just chops them and places them on the forest floor. 3. Communities vs. populations Community- Fire regimes and interspecies/interpopulation competition for resources. Fire- related population traits dictate success and survival over others. Ex. Understory oaks vs. overstory pines. Population- Fire regimes interspecies and intraspecies competition for resources. Can vary in age, size distribution, density, and health. Ex. A group of high-density monotypic Rocky Mountain lodgepole pine are adapted to high-severity fires when the population is mature. Comparison- Populations are focused to the intra and interspecies level while communities Include interactions between populations. A community is a group of populations. Typically a population would be intraspecific (one species), while a community consists of groups of populations (interspecific, meaning multiple species) 4. Fire-related trait vs. fire adaptation Fire-related trait- traits which help species survive and compete in fire adapted ecosystems. Adaptation- species or ecosystem traits that evolved because of a relationship with some feature (such as a disturbance). Some environmental pressure (like fire) culled the population, and only members of the population with a mutation that allows them to survive the environmental pressure continue to reproduce. Comparison- fire-related traits do not suggest that fire was the primary selective feature for a particular trait. Fire-related traits are traits that aid a species in dealing with fire but may not have evolved because of fires effect on the plant (some fire related traits could develop because of another disturbance, before fire was a factor) 5. Fire invaders vs. fire evaders Fire invaders- well-dispersed weedy species with short-lived seeds. Ex. cogongrass high flammability and rhizomes. Fire evaders- species with long-lived seeds stored in the soil or in the canopy. Ex. sand pine serotinous cones. Comparison- Invaders ability to disperse and establish rapidly allow it to invade areas with the appropriate conditions. Invaders such as cogongrass use their high flammability and underground rhizomes to kill other species and immediately re-establish themselves. Evaders store seeds in their canopy or in the soil or have serotinous cones which aid them in reestablishing. The main difference is evaders do not survive the fire but set their offspring up for regeneration.

6. Fire avoiders vs. fire resisters Fire Avoiders- shade-tolerant species with slow recolonization rates (usually killed by fire). Ex._ chinese tallow which suppresses fire with its litter. Fire Resisters- Adults can withstand fire, otherwise intolerant of fire. Ex. longleaf pine with thick corky insulative bark and high foliar moisture. Comparison- Avoiders have no resistance to fire and either avoid or suppress it. Resisters can withstand fire to a certain extent and often encourage fire. 7. Fire ecology vs. disturbance ecology Fire Ecology- Study of fire as a natural disturbance. Impacts living organisms, physical environment and the nature of subsequent fires. Examines feedback loops (ecology of fire can be described for these feedbacks at multiple organizational areas) Disturbance Ecology- Study of relatively discrete events in time and space that alter organisms, communities, and ecosystems and/or a change in resource availability or the physical environment. Comparison- The main difference between the two is that fire influences subsequent fires (feedbacks) and affects both biotic and abiotic factors. These characteristics are unique to fire ecology. 8. Fire independent ecosystem vs. fire sensitive ecosystem Fire Independent Ecosystem- Fire is not a recurring process, plant mortality is high when/if fire occurs. Ex. Tropical Forest. Fire Sensitive Ecosystem- Fire plays little or no role in the ecosystem. Conditions are too wet or dry to burn. Ex. Desert or Tundra. Comparison- Fire independent ecosystems do not have naturally occuring fire regimes but will burn if a fire starts. Sensitive ecosystems have no fire and are generally incapable of having large fires. 9. Alternative stable states vs. succession Alternative Stable States- when an ecosystem is considered stable over time despite disturbance and becomes resistant to disturbances unless they are large enough. Ecosystems can have multiple alternative stable states. Succession- The different stages of growth that move into an ecosystem after a type of disturbance. Major disturbance starts at primary succession, lichens, grasses, forbs. Followed by secondary, more grasses, and shrubby species then followed by trees and woody species. Comparison- Alternative stable states are usually a loop of similar vegetation that tends to resist disturbances such as fire. Alternative stable states do not move through stages, but remain stable and become difficult to return to original state. Short Answer Questions. Answer the following questions with 1-2 declarative sentences.

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10. List and explain the four general effects of fire on wildlife habitat and give an example for Each. (COVER, NUTRITION, EDGE EFFECTS, SNAGS/LOGS) 1. Snags and logs- cavity nesting birds and food availability for wood-boring insects. 2. Cover- increased edge habitat and decreased forest cover for ground-foraging birds such as quail. 3. Microsite availability- embers immediately post fire for beetles, and downed logs for herps and invertebrates. 4. Forage- increases for large herbivores such as deer. 12. Describe TWO traits of individual plants that allow them to survive and perpetuate their species in fire’s presence? 1. Serotinous cones (sand pine): serotinous cones are an evasion strategy which allows plants to regenerate after fire. The cones are stimulated by high heat and open after fire which provides bare soil and low competition, optimal conditions for new growth. 2. Fire-resistant bark and self pruning (longleaf pine): Thick bark allows mature species to survive fire and self pruning prohibits fire from reaching the crown. 3. Grass stage longleaf seedling: Thick needles in the grass stage of longleaf protect the terminal bud from being damaged. 13. How do plant species regenerate or recolonize following fires that kill/remove aerial foliage? Which of the methods indicated confers an advantage in fire-frequented ecosystems? Why? e Some species will resprout from rhizomatous stems. Aerial and above ground foliage is killed every burn, but the underground material lives and resprouts afterwards. e Some species like sand pine have serotenous cones that require fire or high heat to open cones and disperse seeds. This allows new growth to take over from trees killed in a recent fire. e Longleaf pine in a young plant has protective needles that cover the bud and protect it from fire. The needles will burn and die, but the bud remains protected and alive. 14. Are plant communities “fire dependent”? Why or why not? e Some plant communities can be fire dependent because in the absence of fire the structure, function, and composition of the community changes. Additionally if the fire perpetuates the survival and sustenance of multiple populations then the community could be considered fire dependent. Eire dependent communities are typically dependent on particular fire regimes. 15. The R-A-M model, which describes the evolution of ecosystem engineers, describes a vegetation-fire feedback. Describe each of the three components of the R-A-M model using 1-2 sentences for each component. Describe the feedback developed in the model and indicate how you would apply this model to restoration of southeastern pine savannas. 1. Resistance- plants that in early life cycle stages can survive fires and respond to post- fire conditions. Resistors are able to survive and have higher fitness to fire, leaving more offspring.

2. Adaptation- Selection shifts toward effects of post-fire environmental conditions on survival, growth, and reproduction. Offspring benefit from post-fire environment (increased mineral nutrients, high light conditions, dry open enviroQnment). 3. Modification- modify fire regimes by their effects on fuels which generate positive feedback loops producing conditions for which they are adapted. Pine needles are an example of a modification due to their high flammability when dry and their ability to carry higher intensity fires across a landscape. 16. What steps can land managers take to decrease fire-caused tree mortality? Land managers can burn during the summer when moisture in tissues are high. Rake away or remove thick duff from around trees. Burn more frequently to maintain low fuel levels Use headfires with low residence time. 17. How does wildfire help restore soil nutrients? e High temperatures combust soil organic matter releasing nutrients. e Nutrients from dead matter returns to soil after burn, but can sometimes release too much carbon into soil 18. When tree mortality does result from a fire, how and why does it happen? e Tree mortality is most often caused by a fire burning too hot on the surface of the forest. Duff fires around roots are the leading cause of mortality! 19. Describe the trend represented in the graph below. What fire-diversity hypothesis is represented in the graph? Why do we see this trend in nature? In other words, why does diversity decline at high AND at low levels of disturbance? Speces Divarsiy . —— Leavel of Dasturbance e Species diversity is highest when at intermediate disturbance levels (not too little/often or weak/intense). Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis. Because species have developed adaptations and traits which allow them to succeed under natural fire conditions. If a disturbance is extremely weak or too strong it won't provide adequate conditions for diversity and growth. Some species need lots of time

between disturbances while some need very little time and a balance leads to the highest diversity. 20. Use the diagram below to describe the relationship between fire frequency, productivity, and aridity. Explain why this pattern is observed. ! % l Productivty ——————> < Auidity Limited by Limited by blomass fire condilions e Fire frequency is greatest at intermediate levels of productivity because at low levels fire cannot spread or start and at high productivity levels fire has a hard time burning dense and moist vegetation. 21. Use the diagram to the right to answer the following questions: Adapted from Nowack! a. With fire and Abrams (2008) Conditions a. Explain the pattern in the diagram. e Without fire the ecosystem state is altered (troughs) and eventually through the process of mesophication will enter an alternative stable state (pit). b. What do the troughs represent? e The troughs represent alterations in areas in regards to structure and composition. The ecosystem can be restored to its natural state without too much struggle. c. Define mesophication. e Environmental conditions continually improve for shade-tolerant species and deteriorate for shade-intolerant, fire-adapted species. d. How does mesophication change the role fire plays in eastern forests?

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e Mesophication will convert the ecosystem into a less flammable fire independent ecosystem. Damp mesophytic litter and damp microclimate make it difficult for fire to enter the ecosystem. e. How does this model help inform restoration of eastern forests? What predictions would you make when applying fire to a long unburned pine savanna instead? e Fuel loads will be heavily reduced, smoldering may occur Essay Questions. One of the following essays will appear on the final exam. The essay will be worth 20% of the exam grade. To earn full credit, you must use clear, concise sentences and provide sufficient detail. Theory, hypotheses, research and terminology presented in lecture should be referenced. Diagrams and graphs may be used to illustrate answers. 22. “Fire produces winners and losers." Discuss this statement with reference to a particular taxon (either plants, birds, small mammals, reptiles or invertebrates) and discuss winners and losers for that particular group. Consider who are the winners and losers? What conditions or fire regimes cause winners and losers, and is a winner ever a loser? In your conclusions, think about what your findings could also mean for biodiversity conservation in the southeastern U.S. and what the implications might be for fire managers. Can you make any recommendations for fire managers in the southeastern U.S.? - Birds: - Winners: Woodpeckers (feed on insects in snags post fire), Turkeys (feed on Insects on bare soil post fire, can be a loser if burned during nesting), Hawks (find prey (mice, small mammals) during fire attempting to escape fire) - Losers: Spotted Owl (late successional species) - *almost every early successional species is a winner if burned during the right time of year (quall, turkey)* - *almost every late successional species is a loser* 23. You are a land manager working at the Florida Forest Service and must comply with a RCW recovery plan while also managing for invasive species and recreation. What is your management plan? Your park is adjacent to poorly managed private land. How do you convince the private landowners to manage their property in a similar way while considering their personal interests? What evidence/convincing research would you use? Lower the BA significantly, remove midstory for increased flight path, install boxes where sufficient large diameter trees are absent. | would inform the landowner that by reducing their own BA and thinning out midstory obstruction and increasing understory composition, there will be better browse for game species such as deer, quail and turkey. Bring in growing season fires as fire brings in calcium which is necessary for their eggs. 24. When fire regimes are altered, we find changes at the ecosystem, community, and population levels. Describe these changes and how an effect at one level and trickle down to another level. Focus your response on the FOUR mechanisms for community change.

Describe each mechanism and provide an example of the mechanism. Not sure this is correct b/c it refers to ecosystem change!!!! Ecosystem changes resulting from fire suppression * Loss of species that need mineral soil or have serotinous cones » Establishment of species normally killed by fire, which eventually outcompete fireadapted species « Change in fuel properties (moisture content of plant tissue, chemical composition of plant, fuel loading) » Change in forest structure from open to more closed 1. 2. Death of older individuals of a given species, partnered with lack of replacement by offspring, and subsequent replacement by other species 1.0ld plants are more sensitive and die faster after disturbance li.Giant sequoia of Sierra Nevada Mountains a. Without fire, they wont reproduce, other conifers occupy the understory and can eventually replace sequoias (changing community) Active replacement by other species that would normally be killed in fires- they slowly invade but effectively outcompete existing vegetation I.Cedar encroachment into grassy meadows where fire has been suppressed The fire environment changes: Microclimate, substrate availability, growing space, site quality I.Smoldering logs/rots can sterilize soil ii. Slash pile burning damage Fuel properties change after introduction of new plants, changing fire behavior |.Moisture content of plant tissue ii.Chemical composition of plant tissue lii.Fuel loading Iv.Fuel continuity v.Fuel packing ratio vi.Seasonal availability of fuels vii.Like Cogan grass 25. What changes occur over time in fire suppressed pine savannas? What is the climax state? What steps would you take to restore a fire suppressed pine savanna? Explain why each step IS necessary and what it will accomplish. Fire Suppressed pine savannas will undergo mesophication or encroachment of woody oaks into the canopy. The climax state with be a mixed pine oak forest with heavy midstory brush. The steps | would take are mowing/mulching down the understory/midstory oak trees, bushes and vines followed by applying prescribed fire to the land and continuing this process until the pine savannah is on a regular fire regime.

5] & -\\‘3 N’ L8 8 s prere ) o g RO PN T 5 o & 3 3 kes on higher soil levels and lower soil levels get hotter at a lower rate. After fires upper layers cool more rapidly while lower layers retain heat longer. ires spi ing f : Temperature dur emperature Exam 2 - Study Guide - Student Questions 1. Which statement best describes the process of Mesophication? a. Environmental Conditions that continually improve for shade intolerant species and deteriorate for shade tolerant species ing tact with high heat or flame dur IS INn CoN ide a tree when a tree i Inins b. The boiling of the res a fire d. When a duff fire destroys the roots of the tree, to the point of rendering the given tree dead.

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2. Fill in this chart with the correct four switches. Four switches Vegetalion | Post-fire Antecedent type accumulation |, rainfall | | Arid Fire Recent season |, weather l un Frontal Diumal | Wind, syslems | cycle temperature, I ] relative humidity Lightning v | | I L] L ] ' L Cenluries Decades Years Months Days Hours Instant a. Biomass b. Availability to Burn c. Fire Spread d. Ignitions 3. If Fire regimes are altered, communities change via four mechanisms. Describe these four mechanisms. — 1. Changing Community Ecology: Death of older individuals of a given species, partnered with lack of replacement by offspring, and subsequent replacement by other species. Ex. Giant Sequoia of Sierra Nevada Mountains; without fire, sequoia won't reproduce and give way to other conifers occupying the understory, replacing the sequoias — 2. Out Competition: Active replacement by other species that would normally be killed in fires; they invade slowly but effectively outcompete existing vegetation. Ex. Cedar encroachment into grassy meadows where fires have been suppressed — 3. Changes in Environment: The fire environment changes: microclimate, substrate availability, growing space, site quality. Ex. Smoldering logs/roots can sterilize soil — 4. Change in Fuels: Fuel properties change after introduction of new plants, changing fire behavior: Moisture content of plant tissue, chemical composition of plant tissue, fuel loading, fuel continuity, fuel packing ratio, seasonal availability of fuels. Ex. Cogongrass invades open woodlands and increases fire temperature.

Who made this hard ass question 1 4. A fire-___sensitive ecosystem is one in which fire plays little or no role in the ecosystem. 5. Name and explain two of the three fire-species richness hypotheses discussed in class. Which hypothesis is the most widely accepted? - Most Frequent Hypothesis- Burn as often as fuels will allow, will lead to highest species richness - Saturation Hypothesis- Increasing fire frequency will allow increase species richness to a certain threshold. - Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis- At intermediate disturbance levels, fire will lead to greatest species richness. (MOST ACCEPTED) 6. Endurers are individual plants that respond to fire by: a. Resprouting b. Germinating from long lived seeds stored in the canopy or soil c. Surviving with aboveground biomass alive d. Living in habitats where fire is rare 7. When fire regimes are altered, which mechanism of community change effects Giant Sequoia trees? a. Active replacement by other species that would be normally be killed in fires b. Death of older individuals of a given species, without any replacement by offspring, and then subsequent replacement by other species c. The fire environment changes, including microclimate, site quality, growing space, and availability of substrate d. Fuel properties change after the introduction of new plants, changing fire behavior 8. How can tree mortality be predicted? What are some ways we can prevent tree mortality? First order fire effect model can be used to predict tree mortality. Tree mortality can be prevented by knowing where roots are located and regulating duff and liter consumption by burning at specific moisture content. 10. List one example of a first order effect and one example of a second order effect that occur following a fire. First order: burned foliage. Second order: increased tree growth. 11. Briefly define Pyrogeography

Pyrogeography links area burnt to its primary productivity which is controlled by climate. 12. Define fire-dependent, fire-independent & fire-sensitive ecosystems and give an example of each. Fire-Dependent: Fire is essential, Plants have traits that respond positively to fire. (Savannas and prairies) Fire-independent: Fire is not a significant recurring process. Fires are rare under natural conditions. (Tropical and subtropical forests) Fire-sensitive: Fire plays little or no role. Climatic conditions are too wet or too dry to burn. (Tundras and deserts) 13. Explain the four-switch model in determining fire activity. Four switches x::ohﬂm Post-fire l Antecedent accumulation |, rainfall 1. Biomass Arid Fire Recent season weather 2. Availability to bum 3. Fire spread 4. Ignitions 14. ) i | \J L) L A Cenluries Decades Years Months Days Hours Instant is the fire-related injury that poses the highest risk of mortality to pine trees? a. Root damage b. Cambium Damage c. Crown damage d. All have equal mortality risks 15. Longleaf pine relates to which aspect(s) of the RAM model? a. Resistance b. Adaptation c. Modification d. Resistance, Modification, and Adaptation

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16. When restoring a pine savannah, what three things are needed? Fire, Sunlight, Needles. Isn’t fire one of these three things??---yes, Ivor said one thing but she graded everyones quizes wrong who put grass instead of fire----for her exam the answer is fire 17. Describe the RAM model and give an example for each part. — Resistance: early life cycle stages survive fires and respond to post-fire conditions. Ex. Thick bark of longleaf pine and needles that are flame retardant when green. —> Adaptation:After fires focus of selection shifts toward effects of post-fire environmental conditions on survival, growth and reproduction. Ex. Plants flower after fires when ground is more open for seedling establishment — Modification: Species that modify fire regimes by their effects on fuels generate positive feedback loops that produce conditions for which those species are adapted. Ex. Some ground cover plants ignite at low temperatures and burn readily. 18. Colonizers take advantage of the following ideal conditions created by fire EXCEPT: a. Interrupted seed dormancy b. Reduced competition c. Increased heat transfer to upper soil horizon d. Greater light availability 19.Plants modify fire regimes by generating conditions that favor their offspring in all the following ways except: a. Igniting at low temperatures and burning readily b. Producing shade intolerant foliage in early spring c. Leaving standing snags that invite lightning strikes d. Shedding turpentine-enriched leaves to forest floor. 20. Mesophication is when the environmental conditions continually improve for shade-tolerant species and deteriorate for shade-intolerant, fire-adapted species. 22. What is the most common cause of wildlife mortality during a fire? Smoke inhalation 23. Define and give an example of an alternative stable state. Alternative stable state is an oak hammock mixed pine forest resulting from a fire suppressed pine savannah.

24. _alternative stable state (three words) are considered stable over time despite disturbances. 25. Traits of a fire-DEPENDENT ecosystem are: a. Fire it not a significant recurring process b. Plants have traits that respond positively to fire c. Fire is essential d.Band C e. None of the above 27. Define all 3 fire-species richness hypotheses discussed in class. 1. Most Frequent Fire Hypothesis: Burning as often as fuels will allow is the optimum strategy for maintaining species richness and composition 2. Saturation Hypothesis: Increasing fire frequency will only increase species richness to a threshold after which no additional effect can be detected 3. Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis: At intermediate disturbance levels, fire will lead to greatest species richness. (MOST ACCEPTED) 28. What model describes the evolution of ecosystem engineers and what does the model stand for? RAM Resistance - early life cycle stages survives fire and responds to post fire conditions Adaptation - after fire focus of selection shifts towards effects of post fire environmental conditions on survival, growth, and reproduction Modification - species that modify fire regimes by their effects on fuels generate positive feedback loops that produce conditions for which those species are adapted 29. Label the vegetation-fire feedback model by filling in all of the blank boxes in the diagram.

Vegetation-Fire Feedbacks No Vegetation-Fire Feedbacks savanna U pla nd Sandesse 1) ‘\ Disturbance: Shmb encroachment A o il Pine grassland Pine woodland M Pine = rdwood (Landscape 1) (Landscape 1) n.m . .f:m Ch.nm in w O pyrogenicity Restoration! Prescribed Fire Restoration: — 2—" Removal of Forest Trees, \ Pine savanna Reintroduction of Lost De Novo (Landscape 2) Fiery Lowland s Ecosystem O Reinstitution of Fire with Fire- feedbacks — SO, DR. CRANDALL DIDN'T PROVIDE THE DIAGRAM FOR THIS QUESTION, BUT IT REMAINS IN HER STUDY GUIDE.. | JUST DON'T KNOW WHAT SHE WANTS US TO MEMORIZE FROM IT 30. What is the most common cause of wildlife mortality during a fire? a. Smoke inhalation b. Hunting pressure c. Scarcity of rood d. Physical burns 32. Which of the following is NOT a way wildlife escape fires? a. Using burrows b. Flying out of the area c. Jumping the flame d. Staying in wet areas/standing water e. All of the above are ways wildlife escape fire. 33. Label and describe the three sides of the fire regime triangle. Landform, Climate, Vegetation 34. Which of these is a consequence of burning a site that has been roller chopped?

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te. Ina Il not be able to germi th serotinous cones w ies wi a. Saw palmetto will take over the site 36. Explain four major effects of fire on habitats for wildlife? d. Animal mortality will be increased. b. Spec 0 0 bD (1] c e = 7 c b .\w\M\.‘. oo dd P ‘S v} 7 s B ey c i o i o e ; s 2 £ s e o c P 7 > b ek Q o i o | . Q. G s & ; e L = - = o o C o z P % ¢ 2 (o] wn Q m\\ c o c 75 L Cc o i (9.3 e fd A ()] (3] Q i, — [ (] > e . o = 2 = b o c o © G e wr o [+ = ot 4s c o— e . Yt Fees o S a v £ i o e : P 5 “y A tc 7% P 0y nu Q © oo 77 64 [ c = (D) 15 S, b o . b 7% 8] ©c £ () A o = 8o o 3 2 e e " ) o e 7 £ Q v (7} - e 1 o K* o = © Y A 17 wn () < c O M+ ) ik v — (TR ", 4 . g . " Z ..r.m £, s £ = 2 A i 4 %) “% 1 — o A = . 4 v v o e ek e i K O = rg TG - L c ...m = T, - B oo = 1] (4 \\ u c m % oo 3] S ] v A c i 7 [ o o O S Yy °a % S L = -+~ o 9 - P o iy 7 e / ¢ A 1 99 © o - i 3 = 1] .awo o £~ o e -, 3 fecd c () LL g QO Z 5o A > 7 i s 4 ! @ T _. > oG B - o S c £ 7 % 7 7 3 B S 0 P L Q P o O 7y — ) s = - 2 ) ot i 1 s iy P ()] o c o Pes [ ek 7 P [ W g o = Ed o o o c 9 s .\“ or e [ s ot [l r_ 3 > o . o [ - rea e o0 e = oz % 4 2 - © v () 4 o b~y “ b L = b T o et i o Wt ngs 0 ..Le > Z v % 2 c = e w\..u o v e Wﬂb 4 .H soes b ©m— 4 (4] e [l 2y P e e E e O £, W N wv = orte 3, = .= R A 5o ) ) o o g 45 b 5 o (=) >N o= n jo WMM m\\\ Q.\N “M... fio\w a 7] — _r a [&) 5 . m b b, ot P — . e~ 43 S ¥ b el 7 " W c® Lo, T T L Z L e 2 N - i O = o X g o - E oo o0 . o > M 2 " " % T = % v .. b o o7 @ » 2 v ‘T W A A S S / : c 3 7z 4 O o uEh g < =z =l cC = C a s o e Yk ot s nt c -o— O ; O = H .. T o N— o Py . ip Tt i o “. f e P =) = e e Y . > ﬂ_._ 74 i Yot S O o o o 4 N B~ I A ¢ 2 - = 0 © £t 2 # S w4 o D = < o - 0 c = ® % .4 A A T 5 o o 8 o= = e A : , S o i 4 I R I B R % T O s £ o .8 "y, ¥y - e et Lowos E o = A e O £ z 2 o £ g fe ot e i A o2 K2 i ) e hd i Foy) c £ V o MR o wn ] “ G ] e ¥ P W D : o— hd Q C bt ) - S y L o .\.\. b st e o o — regen O W — et M 5" Fees % ek X . E] 1#23 P 5 s e i 7L . s Lo . [ S o g . 5% . C e — V . O PP i < ¥ 4+ e ks e ; e ot £ 4 D o A T 4 N e 7 = Q i 4 i R o 4 (=) . » . . - o > - Y - % . - o g z Gt P S S A B Y o™ o (op BERE SR Y & BRNEN VAN S 0| Lop IR < © G O O < = 0

42. Explain the process of a forest stand reaching a de novo state? o pEy

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