Creation Two- Cellular Respiration

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Ayache 1 Aya Ayache Professor Myhr BIO 1510 Sect 002 24 February 2023 Creation Two: Cellular Respiration Part 1: Movement across membranes Cells move molecules across their membranes through various mechanisms such as diffusion, osmosis, active transport, and tonicity. First, take a closer look at diffusion, which is the movement of particles from a high concentration to a lower concentration (Goodman, 2018). Diffusion can be categorized into two separate categories called passive and facilitated diffusion. Passive diffusion is more commonly used amongst cells as it is a process that does not require any intermediary molecules from the cell's structure, such as channel proteins or carrier molecules (Delhi, 2021). As for the other type of diffusion, facilitated diffusion is a passive transport within cells that uses membrane proteins. The third method of transport across cellular membranes is called osmosis, which is specific to water movement. Osmosis moves water from high to lower concentrations through the permeable cell membrane (Vertalie, 2019). The fourth type of method of transport is titled tonicity. Tonicity is directly correlated with osmosis as it is the ability that an extracellular solution can move water into or out of the cell. Taking a closer look at what determines which direction water will move, three situations will determine the flow direction. Hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic are the three different environmental situations that determine how water will move. To begin, hypertonic solutions are when water moves out of the cell and results in loss of cell volume. Hypertonic solutions refer to

Ayache 2 a solution in which solute concentration exceeds the concentration of the outside environment. Next, hypotonic solutions are where water will move into the cell as the cell gains volume. In a hypotonic solution, the solute concentration outside the cell is lower than the concentration within the cell. Third is the isotonic solution, where attention outside the cell is the same within the cell, and there is no net flow of water in or out of the cell (Kramer, 2020). Active transport is the primary method used in cells, allowing homeostasis to be consistent within the body. Active transport requires energy, as the movement of molecules is moving against the concentration gradient. There are two categories of active transport: primary active transport and secondary active transport. In direct active transport, as it requires energy, the energy used is provided by the natural breakdown of the ATP molecule (Campbell, 2017). On the other hand, secondary active transport derives its power from ionic concentration differences based on the two sides of the cellular membrane. The main difference between the two is the way they gain their energy. While also Na+ is actively transported away from the cell, its intracellular concentration is significantly smaller than its external concentration. Na+'s primary active transport creates the electrochemical gradient that allows for co-transport. Since the extra sodium continuously tries to diffuse to the inside, this gradient turns into energy. This mechanism supplies the power required to co-transport additional ions and materials. Co-transporters, such as the sodium- glucose co-transporter, are examples of how this is visible. The Na+/Glucose co-transporter transfers glucose and Na+ back into the cell using the Na+/K+ ATPase (Campbell, 2017). Part 2: Enzymes ATP, adenosine triphosphate, is a molecule within the cell essential for life and provides the energy needed for cells to function. The structure of ATP is nucleoside triphosphate. Within

Ayache 3 ATP is a nitrogenous base (adenine) with a ribose sugar alongside three boded phosphate groups bound to a ribose (Dunn, 2021). Adenosine triphosphate is the energy currency for the cell and can be compared to the money being stored in the bank! The phosphate tail of the complete structure provides the actual power source, which the cell "taps." As ATP is critical for the functioning of all living things, it is also essential in coupled reactions. A coupled reaction is two reactions joined together and used to push the second reaction with the release of free energy of one response. In more scientific terms, it is where catabolic reactions drive anabolic reactions while using ATP as an intermediate (Smith, 2021). ATP is the essential energy molecule that metabolism produces, and it is dispatched to any area within the cell where a non-spontaneous reaction is needed to occur. In this situation, two responses are coupled, and the final reaction is thermodynamically favorable (Smith, 2021). Activation energy within a cell can be described as the minimum energy required to activate or push molecules or atoms to undergo chemical or physical transformation or transport within a cell (Rocke, 2016). Now, when we focus on enzymes, which are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions, they alter cell activation energy. Triggers work by lowering the activation energy for a response to having a faster rate. Enzymes often change their structure or shape when the substrate binds, as the precise shape of the enzyme is required for the activity to occur induced by the binding with the specific substrate. The active site is the location on the enzyme where substrates bind and where chemical reactions are catalyzed or sped up. The shape is essential as if the form of the enzyme is altered through denaturation, it may or may not be reversible. This can disable the enzyme forever functioning again correctly, which is why optimal enzyme conditions are crucial (Arizona College, 2016). Part 3: Cellular Respiratio n

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Ayache 4 To begin the process of cellular respiration, the first step is glycolysis. Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway in a cell that converts glucose into pyruvate. The breaking down of glucose is required to release energy which results in the cell's metabolism. While glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm, its primary purpose is to synthesize thousands of ATP molecules used for all cellular metabolism activities within the living organism (ByJU, 2018). Oxidation refers to the loss of electrons or the gaining of oxygen molecules, as it also does in this cycle. The second step of cellular respiration is titled pyruvate oxidation, commonly called "grooming of pyruvate," as it links glycolysis and the third step, the Krebs cycle. In this step, a biochemical reaction occurs where pyruvate is oxidized to create acetyl CoA. Pyruvate, which has three carbon atoms, loses one and is converted to acetyl CoA, which has two carbon atoms. The center purpose of this reaction is to focus on the oxidation of pyruvate to acetyl CoA. As this process connects glycolysis in the cytoplasm and the Krebs cycle in the mitochondrial matrix, Acetyl CoA moves on as the final product from this cycle. Acetyl CoA then becomes the reactant in the next step, the Krebs cycle (Gilley, 2021). The third step of cellular respiration is called the Krebs cycle, or the citric acid cycle, which occurs in the mitochondrial matrix. The cycle has eight significant steps, and they can be simplified. This cycle is vital to aerobic respiration and the primary energy source for cells. The cycle converts the acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl CoA) chemical energy into the nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) reducing force. The citric acid cycle is controlled by the enzymes that catalyze these reactions, which can speed up or slow down the process depending on the cell's energy requirements. Oxaloacetate, a four-carbon acceptor molecule, and acetyl CoA combine to generate the six-carbon molecule citrate in the cycle's first phase. This six-carbon molecule undergoes a quick rearrangement,

Ayache 5 which results in two identical events that release two of its carbon dioxide molecules, yielding a molecule of NADH (Johnson, 2007). The remaining four-carbon molecule goes through several processes, producing an ATP molecule (or, in specific cells, a similar molecule known as GTP), then reducing the electron carrier FAD to FADH2, ultimately producing another NADH. For the cycle to continue, these processes renew the oxaloacetate starting molecule. The citric acid cycle generates three NADH, one FADH2, and one ATP molecule while releasing two carbon dioxide molecules. Because there are two pyruvates and two acetyls CoAs produced for every glucose molecule that enters cellular respiration, the citric acid cycle completes twice for each glucose molecule (Johnson, 2007). In cellular respiration, the last stage is oxidative phosphorylation. The electron transport chain and chemiosmosis are two interdependent parts of oxidative phosphorylation. An electrochemical gradient is created in the electron transport chain by transferring electrons from one molecule to another, which releases energy. During chemiosmosis, ATP is produced using the energy stored in the gradient. The inner membrane of the mitochondria contains several chemical compounds and proteins that make up the electron transport chain. In a sequence of redox reactions, electrons are transferred from one component of the transport chain to another. In these processes, energy is released as a proton gradient, which is then utilized to produce ATP through a process known as chemiosmosis. Oxidative phosphorylation is a process that involves both chemiosmosis and the electron transport chain (Berg, 2002). Part 4: Connections In the first section, I discussed movement across the cell membrane. Discussing passive diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis, and tonicity all play a significant role in all living

Ayache 6 organisms. As cells go through different processes of transporting materials throughout the cell, there has to be a specific process to transport certain materials across the permeable cell membrane. They correlate to enzymes and diffusion, as enzymes move across the membrane through diffusion. Enzymes are not always found within the plasma membrane but can also be located outside the membrane. Along the cell membrane, many proteins are there for facilitated transport, as these may also have enzymatic activity. In this way, these proteins along the cell membrane could carry out certain functions of chemical reactions. Some of these proteins are signaling proteins, which we have also discussed. Enzymes speed up chemical reactions and alter a cell's electrochemical gradient. In this way, the processes discussed in section one are responsible for a living organism to remain in homeostasis, such as the conditions related to tonicity. Connecting sections two and three, enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions, including cellular respiration in cells. As enzymes work within the process of cellular respiration, they can lower the activation energy of the response, which reduces the power necessary for the reaction to occur. Enzymes also play another role in cellular respiration, as most of the control in the process is facilitated through specific enzymatic pathways. Coenzymes, such as NADH and FADH2, are electron carriers in cellular respiration. These enzymes play a significant role in carrying elections from the steps of both glycolysis and the citric acid cycle.

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Ayache 7 Works Cited Arizona college. (2016). Energy, Enzymes, and Catalysis Problem Set . Energy, enzymes, and catalysis problem set. Retrieved 22 February 2023, from http:/ /www.biology.arizona.edu/biochemistry/problem_sets/energy_enzymes_catalysis/ 01t.html Berg, S. (2002). Oxidative phosphorylation | biology (article) . Khan Academy. Retrieved 22 February 2023, from https://www.kh anacademy.org/science/ap-biology/cellular- energetics/cellular-respiration-ap/a/oxidative-phosphorylation-etc Campbell, R. (2017). Active transport: Primary & secondary overview (article) . Khan Academy. Retrieved 22 February 2023, from https://www.khanacademy.org/s cience/ap-biology/cell- structure-and-function/facilitated-diffusion/a/active-transport Delhi, K. (2021). Comparison between simple and facilitated diffusion . Unacademy. Retrieved 22 February 2023, from https://unacademy.com/co ntent/neet-ug/study-material/biology/comparison-between- simple-and-facilitated-diffusion/ Dunn, J. (2021). Physiology, adenosine triphosphate - statpearls - NCBI bookshelf . National Library of Medicine. Retrieved 22 February 2023, from https://www.ncbi. nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK553175/ Gilley, J. (2021). Take online courses. Earn college credit. Research Schools, Degrees & Careers . Study.com | Take Online Courses. Earn College Credit. Research Schools, Degrees & Careers. Retrieved 22 February 2023, from https://stu dy.com/learn/lesson/pyruvate-oxidation-products-location.html

Ayache 8 Goodman, B. (2018). Diffusion vs. active transport - cell vibration! Sign in - Google Accounts. Retrieved 22 February 2023, from htt p://sites.usd.edu/cell-ebration/the-cell-membrane/diffusion-vs-active-transportation Johnson, M. (2007). The citric acid cycle | cellular respiration (article) . Khan Academy. Retrieved 22 February 2023, from https://www.khanacademy.or g/science/biology/cellular- respiration-and-fermentation/pyruvate-oxidation-and-the-citric-acid-cycle/a/the-citric-acid- cycle Kramer, E. (2020). Tonicity: Hypertonic, Isotonic & Hypotonic Solutions (article) . Khan Academy. Retrieved 22 February 2023, from https://www.khanacademy.org/scien ce/ap- biology/cell-structure-and-function/mechanisms-of-transport-tonicity-and- osmoregulation/a/osmosis Rocke, A. J. (2016). Activation energy . Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 22 February 2023, from https://www.britannica.com/science/activation-energ y Smith, D. (2021). 7.7: Coupled reactions . Chemistry LibreTexts. Retrieved 22 February 2023, from https://chem.libretexts.o rg/Courses/Mount_Royal_University/Chem_1202/ Unit_7%3A_Principles_of_Thermodynamics/7.7%3A_Coupled_Reactions Vertalie, N. (2019). What is osmosis? Future Learn. Retrieved 22 February 2023, from https://www.futu relearn.com/info/courses/teaching-biology-inspiring-students-with-plants- in-science/0/steps/58750 What is the primary purpose of glycolysis? Biology questions . Byju. (2018). Retrieved 22 February 2023, from h ttps://byjus.com/question-answer/what-is-the-main-purpose-of- glycolysis/

Creation Two- Cellular Respiration

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